Alek+Tollefson


 * Primary Source 3: The Declaration of the Rights of Man (France 1789)**

This document was created by french revolutionaries during the french revolution. they drafted it to detail what rights a fair ruler should recognize in his people. It also served as an outline for the goals of the to be drafted constitution just like the preamble was in America. The revolutionaries in the assembly had drafted it because they were angry over their oppressive ruler Louis the 16th and his predecessors and wanted to make sure the new government was fair to its people. It also was made to make sure every man would have a certain number of rights no matter who they were.

" A common contribution is essential for the maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all the citizens in proportion to their means."

 This excerpt is illustrating the fair distribution of labor and contribution to society among the rich and the poor., they would have made this statement to do away with the old system of the few living on the backs of the many which was essentially the whole reason the revolution was started. this being put into the constitution would enforce equality among labor and do away with oppression of peasants. The french revolutionaries were peasants and had been living lives of continuing work and suffering since the middle ages and with the new ideas of the enlightenment of every man a, priest, king, businessman, they wanted a piece of the pie so to speak.  "As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty"

 The Declaration of the rights of man was also another primary example of enlightenment ideas. For this excerpt bears close resemblance to innocent till proven guilty, written in america at around the same time. Revolutionaries were eager to be free from the idea of if the king doesn't like you he can throw you in jail without reason which had pretty much been the judicial system previous to the revolution. This new idea would have meant the people no longer had to live in mortal fear of their ruler and were able to question him.

The declaration of the rights of man are then just another example of enlightenment thinking and questioning that was occurring all over Europe at the time and would continue to occur into the Russian revolution. It illustrated basically the same ideas of the time in the american constitution and also followed to some extent the legacy began by the Magna Carta much earlier. 

Hypatia of Alexandria was born somewhere between 355 and 370 A.D. Her father Theon of Alexandricus was a Mathematician who raised Hypatia to be a thinker with passion for knowledge. As she got older she was sent to a Platonic school in Alexandria where she became advanced in her studies of Mathematics, Astronomy and Astrology. She became so advanced in fact that by about 400 A.D. she became head of the school where she taught Mathematics, Astronomy and Philosophy. She was an excellent teacher and many of her students went on to make advancements in Mathematics and Philosophy.

But being a teacher is not what Hypatia is most remembered for. Hypatia preserved many of the early mathematical theories. For example the // Conics of Apollonius // was an important book written about Geometric theories that was very difficult to understand. Hypatia revised this book and made it much easier to understand. It is very possible that without Hypatia's revisions these important Geometric discoveries would not have survived through the ages. This and many other ancient mathematical theories were preserved because of Hypatia's work. As her Mathematical and Philosophical teachings and advancements progressed Hypatia became popular with the people. Crowds would come just to see her speak. Unfortunately Hypatia lived during the time period where Christianity was rising above the other religions which caused many religious conflicts. Cyril the Bishop was a christian Governor of Alexandria who quickly became envious of Hypatia's popularity. He sent his christian monks after her who stabbed her to death with broken pottery and dragged her through the streets.


 * Primary source: Analects of Confucius**

The Analects of Confucius was a series of proverbs and metaphors written most likely during the warring states period. The writers of the Analects were Confucius's followers who in the book refer to him as "The Master" almost like he was a powerful all knowing being. Also mentioned in the book were Tsze-hsia and Fan Ch'ih who would ask Confucius a series of questions that he would answer with philosophical proverbs.

The Master said, "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it."

The excerpt above is saying that a kind and virtuous ruler will set an example for the people to follow and will keep the society in order. A concept that would have been very important to people during that time in the warring states because of the decline of previous dynasties was due to bad virtues from the leaders. In fact Confucius probably began Confucianism because of the failures of the last Zhou leader in an effort to keep the peace for years to come. The virtues for leaders were of course not based upon the corrupt last Zhou Emperor they instead looked to what they called "Sage Emperors". Confucius stated every leader should be like the Sage Emperors and follow their example.

The Master said, "A youth, when at home, should be filial, and, abroad, respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the good. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance of these things, he should employ them in polite studies."

This excerpt above illustrates the Confucian guidelines of respect that was designed to uphold society by establishing a hierarchy of elders to follow and respect. This would ultimately hold society together by stating who was right and who was wrong. For example a son would have to respect his father and the father would educate and care for the son. This was called filial piety which was very important because in the Analects Confucius's friends asked what it was at least 30 different times and Confucius gave at least 30 different answers. There were many other relationships with rules and all of these relationship guidelines would hold the society together.

Confucianism, then (because of its lack of a deity) was not a religion but did what most religions do which is keep societies together by establishing virtues for the people to follow. Except for one thing, most religions have a way of enforcing virtue by having a supernatural punishment like hell for people who don't follow and a supernatural reward like heaven for those who do follow. ‍But Confucianism had no gods to do the punishing they instead had unstable society and civil wars as the punishment and a perfect society with peace as a goal for perfect virtue called Junzi


 * Primary source 2 : The Magna Carta**

The Magna Carta was a document made by various nobleman of medieval England which was made to limit the power of the corrupt King John 1st. The Nobleman wrote the document in anger over King Johns recent actions which included extremely high taxes, war failures, unlawful persecutions and conflicts with Pope Innocent the 3rd which had lead to loss of right's, power and money for the nobles.

"No freemen shall be taken or imprisoned or exiled or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him nor send upon him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land"

This excerpt from the Magna Carta states one of the major points of the document which is that the king may not make any wrongful prosecutions to any freeman. This would limit the king from having too much power which would have been very important for the nobles in these dark times who the king had been able to have executed for no good reason but more power. It was then very important for the noble to keep down the corruption and to establish the strength of laws that apply to everyone that would also apply to kings. This would also serve as an early precedent to the present day trial by peers.

"All fines made with us unjustly and against the law of the land, and all amercements, imposed unjustly and against the law of the land, shall be entirely remitted"

This excerpt was one of many points illustrated to prohibit high taxes from a corrupt king that would oppress both the people and nobles.

In the first place we have granted to God, and by this our present charter confirmed for us and our heirs forever that the English Church shall be free, and shall have her rights entire, and her liberties inviolate; and we will that it be thus observed; which is apparent from this that the freedom of elections, which is reckoned most important and very essential to the English Church, we, of our pure and unconstrained will, did grant, and did by our charter confirm and did obtain the ratification of the same from our lord, Pope Innocent III, before the quarrel arose between us and our barons: and this we will observe, and our will is that it be observed in good faith by our heirs forever. We have also granted to all freemen of our kingdom, for us and our heirs forever, all the underwritten liberties, to be had and held by them and their heirs, of us and our heirs forever.

This was to set down the recent conflict between church and state that had been started by king John that had caused many problems in recent years.

Now the magna carta in the end was not exactly what we would call democracy and freedom today but it was the first to illustrate the basic principles of fairness, freedom and trial by peers. Although it only applied to noblemen the magna carta set an important precedent for future documents such as the declaration of the rights of man and the united states constitution which would apply to all men and after revision apply to women. Agreed. Nice review. -SW

This is Socrates and his contribution to the Rennaisance was that he set a precedent for European philosophy and intellectual ability. He was the person who most Rennaisance thinkers would look back on as one of the great ancient minds. One person I thought should be depicted in this painting is Confutios because many of the innovations in the Rennaisance were inspired by chinese thinking as well. Actually this is Plato and Aristotle, not Socrates. Ooops. -SW