*Unit+2+Vocab


 * 1. Abbasid || (750 C.E.) The Sunni dynasty that overthrew the Umayyads as caliphs ||
 * 2. Abu Bakr || (632-634 C.E.) The first caliph; one of Muhammad's earliest followers and closest friends, followed by Sunni Muslims. ||
 * 3. Ali || The 4th caliph; the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad who was meant to be the original successor of Muhammad but was too young. Caused warfare between the Sunnis and Shi'a for not punnishing the murderer of the 3rd caliph, Uthman ||
 * 5. Baghdad || Capital of Abbasid dynasty which was located in Iraq near ancient Persian capital of Ctesiphone ||
 * 6. Battle of Tours || (October 25, 732) Charles Martel, the Frankish Leader went against an Islamic army led by Emir Abd er Rahman; the Islamic army was defeated and Emir Abd er Rahman was killed. The battle stopped the northward advancement of the Islamic Army from Spain ||
 * 10. Byzantine Empire || Eastern Half of the Roman Empire following collapse of the western half of old empire; retained Mediterranean culture, particularly Greek; capital was at Constantinople ||
 * 11. Caliphate || Political and religious successors to Muhammad in the Islamic empires ||
 * 12. Carolingian Dynasty || (8-10th century) Royal house of Franks that succeeded the Merovingian Dynasty; most prominent member was Charlemagne ||
 * 14. Charlemagne || Charles the Great; Carolingian monarch who established a substantial empire in France and Germany ||
 * 15. Charles Martel || Charles the "Hammer"; led the Battle of Tours and saved Europe from the Islamic expansion. (732 C.E.) ||
 * 16. Chichen Itza || Originally a Mayan city; conquered by the Toltecs (1000 C.E) ||
 * 17. Code of Bushido || (Formulated 14th century) Way of the Warrior for Japanese samurais; defined service and conduct appropriate to their status ||
 * 18. Code of Chivalry || Social codes of knighthood that originated in France in the Middle Ages; associated with ideals of knightly virtues, honor and courtly love; came to known as 'gentlemanly conduct.' ||
 * 19. Crusades || Series of military adventures initially launched by western Christians to free Holy Land from Muslims (temporarily succeeded in capturing Jerusalem and establishing Christian kingdoms). They also led to Christians rediscovering much of their Greek and Roman history. ||
 * 20. Czar (Tsar, Tzar) || Male monarch/emperor of Russia ||
 * 21. Daimyo || Warlord rulers of 300 small kingdoms following Onin War and disruption of Ashikaga Shogunate ||
 * 22. Dome of the Rock || Islamic shrine in Jerusalem; believed to be the site where Mohammed ascended to Heaven. ||
 * 23. Dynasty || A family/group that maintains power for several generations ||
 * 24. Eleanor of Aquitaine || Queen of France as the wife of Louis VII; married Henry II, and after that marriage was annulled and became Queen of England from 1152-1204. ||
 * 25. Emperor Xuanzong || (Reigned 713-755) Leading Chinese emperor of the Tang dynasty; encouraged overexpansion. ||
 * 27. Feudalism || System where lords provided protection/aid to serfs in return for labor. ||
 * 28. Five Pillars of Islam || Obligatory religious duties of all Muslims: confession of faith, prayer (5 times a day facing Mecca), fasting during Ramadan, Zakat (tax for charity), and the Hajj (pilgrimage) ||
 * 29. Franks || A group of Germanic tribes in the early Christian era; spread from the Rhine into the Roman Empire. ||
 * 30. Genghis Khan || (1170s – 1227) from 1206 Khan of all Mongol tribes; responsible for the conquest of northern kingdoms of China and territories as far west as the Abbasid regions ||
 * 31. Golden Horde || One of four subdivisions of the Mongol Empire after Genghis Khan’s death; territory covered much of present south-central Russia ||
 * 32. Hagia Sophia || Large church constructed in Constantinople during the reign of Justinian. Converted to a mosque after the fall of Constantinople. ||
 * 33. Hanseatic League || Organization of cities in N. Germany/Scandinavia for the purpose of establishing a commercial alliance. ||
 * 34. Heresies || Any opinions/doctrines at variance with the established or orthodox position; beliefs that reject the orthodox tenets of a religion. ||
 * 35. Holy Roman Empire || A continuation of the Roman Empire in central-western Europe (at least, loosely organized/modeled on it). ||
 * 36. Hordes || Nomadic Mongol tribes. ||
 * 37. Hundred Years’ War || (1337 – 1453) conflict between England and France –fought over lands England possessed in France (issue of feudal rights vs. emerging claims of national states) ||
 * 38. Incan || Group of clans centered at Cuzco that were able to create empire incorporating various Andean cultures. Term also used for leader of empire ||
 * 39. Inquisition || An investigation; A tribunal formerly held in the Roman Catholic Church and directed at the suppression of heresy ||
 * 40. Interregnum || The interval of time between the end of a sovereign's reign and the accession of a successor ||
 * 41. Islam || Major world religion originating in 610 CE in the Arabian peninsula; literally meaning submission; based on the prophecy of Muhammad ||
 * 42. Ivan the Terrible || Ivan IV, confirmed power of tsarist autocracy by attacking authority of boyars(aristocrats); continued policy of Russian expansion; established contacts with western European commerce and culture. ||
 * 43. Joan of Arc || A French military leader of the fifteenth century, a national heroine who at the age of seventeen took up arms to establish the rightful king on the French throne. She claimed to have heard God speak to her in voices. These claims eventually led to her trial for heresy and her execution by burning at the stake. Joan of Arc is a saint of the Roman Catholic Church. ||
 * 44. Justinian || Eastern Roman emperor 527-565 CE; tried to restore unity of old Roman Empire; issued most famous compilation of Roman law. ||
 * 45. Justinian Code || Compilation of Roman law. ||
 * 46. King Clovis || Early Frankish king; converted Franks to Christianity in 496; allowed establishment of Frankish kingdom. ||
 * 48. Kublai Khan || Grandson of Chinggis Khan; commander of Mongol forces responsible for conquest of China; became Khan in 1260; established Mongol Yuan dynasty in China in 1271. ||
 * 50. Machu Picchu || An ancient Inca fortress city in the Andes northwest of Cuzco, Peru. ||
 * 51. Magna Carta || Great Charter issued by King John of England in 1215; confirmed feudal rights against monarchial claims; represented principle of mutual limits and obligations between rulers and feudal aristocracy. ||
 * 52. Magyars || A Hungarian ethnic group. ||
 * 53. Mali || Country of western Africa; During the Middle Ages, Mali formed a huge territorial empire, noted as a center of Islamic study and as a trade route for gold. Its center was Timbuktu. ||
 * 54. Manors || The district over which a lord had domain and could exercise certain rights and privileges in medieval western Europe. ||
 * 55. Mansa Musa || African King who made pilgrimage to Mecca and gave out so much gold that its worth dropped rapidly. ||
 * 56. Marco Polo || A Venetian trader and traveler that went and learned about China under Kublai Khan. ||
 * 57. Mayan || People occupying the Eastern third of Mesoamerica, particularly the Yucatan Peninsula. The empire was divided into city-states. ||
 * 58. Mecca || Religious Center of Islam, in which Muslims pray towards 5 times a day. ||
 * 59. Medina || Great trading center where Muhammad fled when the Umayyads plotted against him and solved their civil war. (Bedouin feuds ended). ||
 * 60. Mesoamerica || The region extending from central Mexico south to the northwestern border of Costa Rica. Gave rise to a group of stratified, culturally related agrarian civilizations spanning an approximately 3,000-year period before the European discovery of the New World by Columbus ||
 * 61. Middle Ages || The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three 'ages': the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, Dark Ages, Age of Faith, Age of Feudalism and the modern times. ||
 * 63. Mohammed || Grew up with his uncle Abyu Talib and caravanned through Syria, which greatly influenced his teachings. Made a hajj to Medina and started the Islamic calendar. ||
 * 64. Mongol || Central Asian nomadic people; expanded over Asia and Europe spreading their empire while pillaging. Cultural diffusion from East to West. ||
 * 65. Muslims || People who believe and follow the Islamic religion. Worship Allah and follow the five pillars. (confession, injunction, fast, Zakat, and hajj). ||
 * 66. Oral literature || Stories or history passed down verbally for generations. ||
 * 67. Orthodox Christianity || Orthodox Christianity is a generalized reference to the Eastern traditions of Christianity, as opposed to the Western traditions which descend from the Roman Catholic Church ||
 * 68. Otto the Great || King of the Germans and arguably the first Holy Roman Emperor. Unified German tribes into a single kingdom, and expanded his control under an aristocratic church-state alliance. ||
 * 69. Peasant || Agricultural worker that works land they own or rented. Often under the control of a land lord. ||
 * 70. Pepin || Mayor of the Palace of the whole Frankish kingdom (both Austrasia and Neustria), and later King of the Franks; born 714; died at St. Denis, 24 September, 768. He was the son of Charles Martel ||
 * 71. Pope || Pope in Rome had top authority, while regional churches had bishops ||
 * 72. Pope Innocent III || Supported Otto, believing Otto will give church back power but Otto betrayed him. Otto seized church’s land and distributed it among vassals ||
 * 73. Primogeniture || An exclusive right of inheritance belonging to the eldest son ||
 * 74. Prince Shotoku || Important Japanese regent and scholar of the Asuka period… promoted Buddhism and Confucianism, reinstituted embassies from China, and adopted their Chinese calendar and court ranks ||
 * 76. quipu || System of knotted strings utilized by the Incas in place of a writing system…could contain numerical and other types of information for censuses and financial records ||
 * 77. Qur’an || The holy book of Islam… recitations of revelations received by Muhammad from the angel Gabriel. ||
 * 78. Scholasticism || Dominant medieval philosophical approach… based on the use of logic to resolve theological problems ||
 * 79. Serfs || Peasant agricultural laborers within the manorial system of the Middle Ages. They weren’t slaves, but they couldn’t leave the Manor. ||
 * 80. Shogun || Military dictators in Japan. Leader of Bakufu/Shogunate. ||
 * 81. Shogunate (bakufu) || Military government in 12th century Japan… established by the Minamoto after the Gempei Wars… retained emperor but real power resided in military government, shogun, and samurai. ||
 * 82. Song || Chinese dynasty that united the entire country until 1127 and the southern portion until 1279, during which time northern China was controlled by the Juchen tribes. Not as large as Tang territory. ||
 * 85. St. Cyril || A missionary sent by the Byzantine government to eastern Europe and the Balkans… converted southern Russia and Balkans to Orthodox Christianity…responsible for creation of written script for Slavic known as Cyrillic ||
 * 86. Sufis || Mystics within Islam… responsible for expansion of Islam in southeastern Asia. Focused on enlightened inner being, not intellectual proof. ||
 * 87. Sunni/Shia || Political and theological division within Islam… followers of the Umayyads. Sunnis believe a friend of Muhammad deserved to be a caliph, where Shia’s believe his son-in-law deserved it. ||
 * 89. Taika Reforms || Attempt to remake Japanese monarch into an absolute Chinese- style emperor…also tried to make a professional bureaucracy and peasant conscript army. (drafted) ||
 * 90. Tang || Dynasty that succeeded the Sui in 618 C.E… more stable than the previous dynasty. Chinese emperor who overthrew the Hsia dynasty and founded the Shang dynasty. Golden Age of China, and the largest expansion up to that point in time. ||
 * 91. Tatars || Mongols; captured Russian cities and largely destroyed Kievan state ||
 * 92. Temple of the Sun || Inca Religious center located at Cuzco. Used to honor the Sun God. ||
 * 93. Tenochtitlan || Center of Aztec power, founded on a marshy island in Lake Texcoco. Today known as Mexico city. ||
 * 94. Thomas Aquinas || Creator of one of the great syntheses of medieval learning; believed that through reason it was possible to know much about natural order, moral law, and the nature of God ||
 * 95. Tikal || A ruined Mayan city of northern Guatemala. It was the largest of the Mayan cities and may also be the oldest. Collapsed about 1000 CE ||
 * 96. Timur Lang || Leader of Turkic nomads - last Mongol nomad. Ruled as an ‘Amir’ not a ‘Khan’. Conquered money, not trading. ||
 * 97. Timur the Lame || Name given to Timur Lang ||
 * 98. Treaty of Verdun || 843 the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious divided his territories, the Carolingian Empire, into three kingdoms ||
 * 99. Umayadd || Powerful Muslim family that took over and created first Islamic caliphate. Founded and dominated Mecca. ||
 * 100. Vassals || Members of military elite who received land or benefice from a lord in return for military service and loyalty ||
 * 101. Viking/Norse || Scandinavian raiders who plundered south into Asia, and eventually got converted to Christianity. ||
 * 102. Vladimir || Ruler of Russian kingdom of Kiev – converted kingdom to Christianity. Destroyed idols and pagan temples, while replacing them with churches and monasteries. ||
 * 103. William the Conqueror || Invaded England, was Duke of Normandie, and created a centralized feudal system. ||
 * 104. Wu Zhao || Empress in China; supported Buddhism during the Tang Dynasty. ||
 * 107. Sharia || Islamic Law ||
 * 108. ulama || Religious leaders – educated class of Muslim scholars. ||
 * 109. jihad || An Arabic word meaning “ striving in the way of God”, but it is often translated as “holy war”. Refer to an armed struggle fought in the defense of Islam to please Allah ||
 * 110. Bedouins || Nomadic Arabs who originally inhabited desert areas of the Middle East and northern Africa and later began to move to other parts of the region. Origin of Umayyads. ||
 * 111. Moors || The Medieval Muslim inhabitants of al-Andalus and the Maghreb. They captured Spain in 700s, and were expelled from Spain in 1492 ||
 * 114. ideographic || A type of character representation in which characters do not represent pronunciation alone, but are also related to the component meanings of words. (media of design) ||
 * 115. Cyrillic alphabet || an alphabet derived from the Greek alphabet and used for writing Slavic languages ||
 * 116. Hagia Sofia || It is a 6th century masterpiece of Byzantine architecture in Istanbul; built as a Christian church by Justinian, converted to a mosque in 1453, and made into a museum in the middle of the 20th century ||
 * 117. woodblock printing || It is a technique for printing used widely throughout East Asia and originating in China sometime between the mid-6th and late 9th centuries ||
 * 119. astrolabe || an instrument that was used to determine the altitude of objects (like the sun) in the sky. It was first used around 200 BC by astronomers in Greece. The astrolabe was replaced by the sextant ||
 * 120. Arabic numerals || A written number system created during the Gupta golden age in India, then adopted by the Islamic Empire before spreading further. Most familiar numeral style (1,2,3, etc.,) used on clock and watch dials ||
 * 121. mosque || A mosque is a place of worship for followers of the Islamic faith ||
 * 122. minaret || A tower attached to a mosque, used for call to prayer ||
 * 123. dome || a common structural element of architecture that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere ||
 * 124. pillars || In architecture and structural engineering, a column is that part of a structure whose purpose is to transmit through compression the weight of the structure ||
 * 129. Al Razi || A Persian Philosopher who made fundamental and lasting contributions to the fields of medicine, chemistry (alchemy) and philosophy. (865-925) ||
 * 130. Al Khwarizmi || Persian scientist, mathematician, astronomer/astrologer, and author. He is often cited as "the father of algebra", which was named after a part of the title of his book, Hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala, along with the algorism number system ||
 * 131. Omar Khayyam || He was famous during his lifetime as a mathematician and astronomer who calculated how to correct the Persian calendar. he objected to the notion that every particular event and phenomenon was the result of divine intervention; nor did he believe in any Judgement Day or rewards and punishments after life. Instead he supported the view that laws of nature explained all phenomena of observed life ||
 * 133. Li Tai-Po || Chinese poet living in Tang Dynasty . He is best known for the extravagant imagination and striking Taoist imagery in his poetry, as well as for his great love for liquor. He is said to have drowned in the Yangtze River, having fallen from his boat while drunkenly trying to embrace (the reflection of) the moon ||
 * 134. Orthodox || The word orthodoxy, from the Greek ortho ('right', 'correct') and doxa ('thought', 'teaching'), is typically used to refer to the correct theological or doctrinal observance of religion, as determined by some overseeing body. Each is headed by a bishop; most are related to a specific country, as in Serbian, Russian and Greek Orthodox ||
 * 136. Hadith || Traditions of the prophet Mohammad that played a critical role in Islamic law and rituals; recorded by women ||
 * 137. Legalism || In Christian theology, legalism is belief, stated or supposedly implied, that law, not faith, is the pre-eminent principle of redemption ||
 * 138. Shinto || Religion of early Japanese culture; devotes worshipped numerous gods and spirits associated with the natural world; offers of food and prayer made to gods and nature spirits ||
 * 140. Thousand and One Nights || Arabian Nights' Entertainment: a collection of folktales in Arabic dating from the 10th century ||
 * 141. Great Schism || Divide of the Christian church whereby for a time there were two popes ||
 * 142. Patriarch || a man who rules a family, clan or tribe ||
 * 144. Roman Catholic Church || The Christian church characterized by an episcopal hierarchy with the pope as its head and belief in seven sacraments and the authority of tradition ||
 * 145. Swahili || A Bantu language of the coast and islands of eastern Africa from Somalia to Mozambique ||
 * 148. monsoons || winds from the southwest or south that brings heavy rainfall to southern Asia in the summer - method by which Arab merchants travelled ||
 * 149. Silk Road || number of trade routes from East Asia to Eastern Europe, one of the trade commodities was silk ||
 * 150. mawali || non-arab converts to Islam ||
 * 151. Mali Empire || model of Islamicized (reinforced kingship) Sudanic kingdoms, Malinke merchants traded throughout W Africa ||
 * 152. Songhay Empire || successor to Mali empire, fusion of Islam, pagan, took over Niger valley, dominant in area until Muslims with muskets ||
 * 153. hajj || Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca ||
 * 154. scholar gentry || elite, educated bureaucrats who ran the centralized gov’t pf China ||
 * 155. Ibn Battuta || Arab traveler/trader who commented on African traveling security, cities ||
 * 156. Mansa Musa || African prince from Mali who gave out so much gold during a pilgrimage it devalued ||
 * 158. calligraphy || writing art form ||
 * 160. foot binding || The societal restrictions imposed upon women as families became wealthier, women status lowered ||
 * 162. shogun || Japanese lord who wielded most power while the emperor was controlled ||
 * 163. puppet emperor || Emperor with no real power. In Japan, the shogun (who acted in the name of the emperor) had all the major power ||
 * 166. warlordism || A military commander exercising civil power in a region, whether in nominal allegiance to the national government or in defiance of it ||
 * 167. imperial bureaucracy || system to run centralized gov’t, comprised of educated scholar-gentry ||
 * 168. Muhammad || Prophet who spread the Islamic religion. Born in 570, received revelations from Allah in 610, before passing away in 630 ||
 * 169. caliph || Political, religious and militaristic leader of Islam ||
 * 170. Ali || The fourth caliph or successor of Muhammad. He was also the Prophet's cousin. He is revered by Shi'a Muslims as the rightful first caliph ||
 * 171. Yuan dynasty || 1271 to 1368, also called the Mongol Dynasty. Period of Kublai Kahn and the Mongols dominance over China ||
 * 172. junk || Chinese ships equipped with watertight bulkheads, sternpost rudders, compasses, and bamboo fenders. Played major roles in the Asian seas east of the Malayan peninsula ||
 * 173. compass || Device used to determine geographic direction ||
 * 174. abacus || A calculator that performs arithmetic functions by manually sliding counters on rods ||
 * 175. movable type || invented in China in the mid-eleventh century. Individual characters made of fired clay were assembled and glued onto a plate to create a printing block. Introduced in Europe in the 15th century ||
 * 176. landscape painting || Popular artistic style in China during the Tang-Song era. Previously popular Buddhist themes are pushed away by the new scholar-gentry classes interest in nature’s beauty ||
 * 177. currency-based economy || Unified monetary and banking systems are present in the economy ||
 * 178. new strains of rice || new strains of rice - led to population growth in Asia ||
 * 179. Prince Shotoku || Prince of Japan. When young, received Buddhist influences from relatives that were affected by Paekche and Kokuryo Buddhisms. Established an official rank system (based on Chinese and Korean official rank system) and a constitution (stressed the acceptable behaviors of the people) and spread Buddhism around Japan ||
 * 180. Yamato clan || Gained control of the nation over other rival clans around 400 CE. Established an imperial court similar to that of China in 700 CE ||
 * 182. sedentary agriculture || Where farming occurs in one place, repeatedly, opposed to shifting cultivation ||
 * 183. shifting cultivation || When farming occurs over several patches of land, rotatingly so that nutrients of the soil will not be depleted ||
 * 184. pastoral nomadism || Herding animals while moving from place to place ||
 * 185. foraging || Gathering food, usually nuts, berries, roots, etc ||
 * 186. feudalism || Relationship between lord and serfs where protection is exchanged for crops/labor ||
 * 187. manorialism || Organization of rural economy and society by three classes of manors: a lord’s own land, serf holdings, and free peasant land ||
 * 188. fiefs || Plots of land owned by a lord, little kingdoms ||
 * 189. vassals || Subordinate who, in exchange for land, gives loyalty ||
 * 190. reciprocal relationship || System where both parties benefit - such as feudalism in Europe - protection for labor ||
 * 191. samurai || Japanese feudal military leaders, rough equivalent of Western knights; declared loyalty to local leaders (bushi) instead of emperor, but were called upon to protect the emperor or high officials; committed seppuku, or dismemberment, if one was dishonored by being defeated: honored the code of bushido, which was similar to the Western code of chivalry ||
 * 192. nation-states || Autonomous state with people sharing a common culture/history/language/religion/location; lead to the formation of Germany in the late 1800’s and Italy in the early 1800’s; created a sense of unity among people in a certain location; Ex. Germanic people considered themselves “Germans” before Germany was created. ||
 * 194. William the Conqueror || Duke of Normandy who invaded England in 1066 and conquered it; introduced tight feudal system to England- estates for royalty in return for military service; created strong centralized monarchy; included more standardized national law codes ||
 * 195. jury system || Judgment, made by a judge, whereby there is a trial and people witnessing the trial deciding the guilt/innocence of the defendant (jury) ||
 * 196. King John || Younger brother of King Richard, & bad king of England basically; taxed English nobles to pay for a war with France and lost; Nobles forced him to sign the Magna Carta in 1265; created a parliament- Ling could only raise taxes with nobles’ consent ||
 * 197. Magna Carta || Nobles fed up with King John made him sign Great Charter (Magna Carta) that made sure king got approval of aristocracy before imposing taxes, etc, limited king’s power- 1265 ||
 * 198. Parliament || Beginning in England with a House of lords (aristocracy, church, nobles) and House of Commons (rich merchants and wealthy citizens) governing legislative body; gained the right to rule on any proposed changes in taxation. ||
 * 200. Hugh Capets || After the death of Louis, the son of Hugh the Great, Hugh Capet, requested the crown of France from the archbishop of Reims and the upper nobility; made city of Paris his control center- extended power from there ||
 * 201. Sundiata || “Lion prince”; member of the Keita clan; created a unified state that became the Mali Empire; died in 1260; struggled in childhood but unified Mali empire and expanded the empire; divided clans into military, artisan, and religious roles ||
 * 202. Timbuktu || Port city of Mali; located just off the flood plain on the great bend in the Niger River; contained a library and university; pilgrimage made by gold-wealthy Mansa Musa promoted Trans-Sahara trade and increased travel to Timbuktu ||
 * 204. centralized monarchy || a monarchy whose rule included concentrated far-reaching power; line of rule is often hereditary; Ex. Henry VIII, Louis XIV, Louis XVI ||
 * 210. scholasticism || dominant medieval philosophy approach; base in the schools and universities; use of logic to resolve theological problems; demonstrated an unusual confidence in the logical orderliness of knowledge ||
 * 212. iconoclastic controversy || religious controversy with the Byzantine Empire in the 8th century; emperor attempted to suppress veneration of icons; Roman Catholic Pope did not approve icon painting- painting of saints and religious figures; attacked the idea- Pope and Byzantine patriarch excommunicated each other ||
 * 213. clergy || Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion; Christianity- Pope, Cardinals, Bishops, Priests; Islam-Caliph ||
 * 217. Charlemagne || king of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor- Extended over France and Germany and Northern Italy; conqueror of the Lombards and Saxons (742-814); Rescued Pope from Rome from barbarians- Pope declared him Emperor of Holy Roman Empire ||
 * 219. Humanists || The focus on humankind as the center of intellectual and artistic endeavor in the Italian Renaissance; showed that religious ideas were no longer predominant ||
 * 220. Vikings || A culture originating in Scandinavia (now Norway, Denmark and Sweden) around the mid-8th century AD The Vikings were fierce conquerors, brave explorers, and skilled craftspeople; they invaded and settled countries throughout Western Europe- Attacked England and France—feudalism was used to protect serfs from Vikings in exchange for working on a lord’s land ||
 * 224. Guilds || Western European trade associations, grew strongly in the 12th and 13th centuries to protect and promote trade groups; associations of people in the same business; regulated number of workers, established price limits; stresses security for certain industry ||
 * 225. Gothic architecture || A style of architecture developed in northern France that spread throughout Europe between the 12th and 16th centuries; characterized by slender vertical piers and counterbalancing buttresses and by vaulting and pointed arches- served as external supports on main walls ||
 * 226. Hanseatic League || a commercial and defensive confederation of free cities in northern Germany and surrounding areas; formed in 1241 and most influential in the 14th century when it included over 100 towns and functioned as an independent political power; the last official assembly was held in 1669; encouraged trade-timber and grain from northern Europe for cloth and metal products from South; facilitated the organization of banking facilities ||
 * 227. Hundred Years War ||  ||
 * 228. Interdict || A prohibition by the pope that can deprive individual persons, groups, communities and even nations of all priestly ministries. Thus, they no longer had access to the sacraments of the church; a form of excommunication ||
 * 234. Russian Orthodox Church || conservative branch of Christianity that developed in Russia with Byzantine cue; spread by Vladimir I through forced conversions; involved use of icons and icon painting ||
 * 235. Perspective in art || development in the Renaissance that included realistic three-dimensional perspective; added third dimension and depth to a painting ||
 * 237. Seljuk Turks || major branch of the Oghuz Turks, ruled parts of central Asia and middle east (11-14 centuries); Nomadic invaders from Central Asia- ruled in the name of the Abbasids in the 1000’s; Sunni purged the Shi’a officials in the caliphate; conquered the Byzantines at Constantinople—Built Istanbul in place ||
 * 238. Ottoman Turks || ethnic subdivision of Turkish people, who dominated ruling class of the ottoman empire; followed the Seljuk Turks; originated from Anatolia; Lasted until WWI, where the Empire was crushed; had previously been supported by Britain and France- considered the “Sick Man of Europe” ||
 * 239. sultan || Islamic title, used for rulers of the Muslim country, especially the Ottoman Empire ||
 * 240. Crusade || series of military campaigns, where roman Catholics tried to capture “holy land” from Muslims, some were in Europe; started in 1055; Byzantine Christians called upon Pope to help them; Pope amassed Christian armys-exposed Europeans to the advanced technology of the Muslims ||
 * 241. Bantu || term used to describe 400 diff ethnic groups in Africa, Cameroon to south Africa, which were untied by a common language (Bantu languages); Bantu tribes originally migrated from western Africa to South East Africa, spreading agricultural techniques to local Africans; Swahili-combination of Arabic and Bantu ||
 * 242. Zimbabwe || country where Bantu people began migrating into, linked to the establishment of trade ties with Muslim merchants on Indian ocean (bout 10th century) trading natural resources such as gold, ivory, copper for cloth and glass and spices from India ||
 * 243. Mamluks || Arabic word for “owned”, slave soldiers used by Muslim caliphs and the ottoman empire; established a dynasty in Egypt- halted Mongol advance in 1260; Turkish slaves in Ottoman Empire ||
 * 244. Tatars || name applied to the Turkic people of eastern Europe and central Asia, derived from Ta-ta a Mongolian tribe that inhabited present northeast Mongolia in 5th century AD; Mongols in 13th century were called this- “people from hell”- exacted tribute from local Russians ||
 * 245. Genghis Khan || successful military leader, united Mongol tribes, was the founder of the Mongol empire (1206-1368); formed the world’s largest land empire; successfully united divided Mongol tribes and made extraordinary conquests across Africa ||
 * 246. khanates || region ruled under a khan, divided kingdoms under the Mongol empire; Golden Horde, Il-Khanate, Yuan Dynasty, and Chaghatai Khanate ||
 * 247. Golden Horde || a state established in Russia, one of the four kingdoms in the Mongol empire; formed in 1236; considered a side campaign on the way to invade Western Europe; Called Tartars by the Russians, the Mongols exacted tribute from them; Eventually forced out by Russians in 1380 ||
 * 249. Kievan Russia || early east Slavic state, dominated by city of Kiev- founded by Scandinavian traders; Vladimir I- converted to Christianity- spread Russian Orthodox Church by forced conversions ||
 * 250. city-states || a sovereign state consisting of an independent city with a leader and its surrounding agricultural territory; typical political formation in Mesopotamia and Greece ||
 * 251. national identity || distinguishing features of a group, to individual’s sense to belong in it; can be caused by belonging with other people in a specific location- can cause intense rivalry with neighboring nations ||
 * 252. Balkan Peninsula || geographic name used to describe southern Europe, as it was surrounded by the Adriatic, Ionian, Aegean…seas from southwest, south and southeast ||
 * 253. steppes || a vast semiarid grass-covered plain, found in southeast Europe and Mongolia; dry enough not to support trees, but not dry enough to be considered a desert ||
 * 254. bubonic plague || A highly contagious disease, that was fatal and otherwise known as the disease spread in Asia and Europe in 1347-1351 by the Chinese and Mongols ||
 * 255. Black Death || Also known as the Black Plague that wiped out approximately 25 million people in Europe, or 25% of it’s population; caused black boils to form on the skin; spread fleas living on rats- rats traveled on ships across the Mediterranean ||
 * 256. Bosporus || a narrow strait separating European and Asian Turkey and joining the Black Sea with the Marmara Sea; also an important trade route through Istanbul, formerly Constantinople ||
 * 258. Mesoamerica || known as the strip from Mexico to Midwestern United States and Canada, where the native Americans have inhabited over time; areas were inhabited by Maya and Aztec ||
 * 259. Maya || A native American group of people that lived in Central America; constructed massive pyramids for gods- used human sacrifice; specialized in mathematics and extremely accurate calendars; major city- Teotihuacan; grew potatoes and maize 400-700’s CE ||
 * 260. Toltecs || a member of a Nahuatl-speaking people of central and southern Mexico whose empire flourished from the 10th century under invasion by the Aztes in the 12th Century; succeed the Maya-established canter at Tula; included cult of sacrifice and strong military 960-1000 CE ||
 * 261. Quetzalcoatl || A god of the Toltecs and Aztecs, one of the manifestation of the sun god Tezcatlipoca and represented as a plumed serpent ||
 * 262. priest-scholars || the higher class people of the native American societies, that controlled the government along with the grand leader; sometimes manipulated the masses because of their extensive knowledge from their calendars- Maya ||
 * 265. moundsbuilders || in Mississippi region of N. America, civilizations found that created moundlike temples of dirt as burial grounds ||
 * 266. pyramids || A solid figure with a polygonal base and triangular faces that meet a common point, a religious burial temple or tribute to different Gods- Aztecs, Mayas ||
 * 267. Inca || A member of the group of Quechuan peoples of highland Peru who established an empire from northern Ecuador to central Chile before the Spanish conquest; integrated empire but moving certain people to specific regions; used extensive road system but did not have a written language; Conquered by Pizarro in 1521 ||
 * 268. Hillside terracing || method growing rice in bulk; used in China and South East Asia to maximize moisture for crops in shallow soil ||
 * 269. Quipu || A record-keeping device of the Inca empire consisting of a series of variously colored strings attached to a base rope and knotted so as to encode information, used especially for accounting purposes; described different aspects of an event- number of people, location ||
 * 270. tribute || The sacrificing to the gods or the offering and payments to the leaders and/or owners of the land; used by Inca and Aztec- people for sacrifice or good and produce ||
 * 272. Aztec Empire || Powerful American Indian empire founded on Lake Texcoco (Mexico) ||
 * 273. Hernan Cortez || Spanish explorer who defeated the Aztec Empire and brought most of Mexico under Spanish control ||
 * 274. Montezuma || The last emperor of the Aztecs who saw his empire defeated by the Spanish in 1521 ||
 * 275. Francisco Pizarro || Spanish conqueror who defeated the Incan Empire of Peru from 1535-1540 ||
 * 276. Atahualpa || The 13th and last emperor of the Incan Empire ||
 * 277. Cuzco || The capital city of the Incan Empire ||
 * 278. Teotihuacan || The capital city of the Aztecs in 1325 ||
 * 279. Acculturation || the obtainment of culture by an individual or a group of people ||
 * 280. Calpulli || Aztec clans that distributed and policed/ran land and provided labor and warriors (like a mafia) ||
 * 281. Despotism || a system of government where a single authority rules with absolute power ||
 * 282. bakufu || military government established by the Minamoto, a powerful Japanese clan in 1185 ||
 * 284. bushido || Japanese warrior code of conduct based on honor and loyalty, similar to the chivalry system in Europe ||
 * 286. daimyo || Warlord rulers who divided Japan into 300 little kingdoms ||
 * 287. Gempei Wars || five year war fought between two of Japan's powerful families, the Taira and the Minamoto ||
 * 288. kowtow || formal recognition of the Chinese emperor's authority, where representatives from tribute states that would present gifts and engage in a formal bowing ceremony ||
 * 289. Neo-Confucianism || a response by the Confucians to the dominance of the Daoists and Buddhists, severe Confucianism ||
 * 290. seppuku || The samurai ritual suicide/disembowelment in Japan (hara-kiri); demonstrating courage and restoring family honor after a lost battle or failed mission ||
 * 291. tea ceremony || Japanese ceremony with Chinese influences symbolizing tranquility ||
 * 292. Allah || The all-powerful Muslim God ||
 * 293. Battle of Tours || (October 25, 732) Charles Martel, the Frankish Leader went against an Islamic army led by Emir Abd er Rahman; the Islamic army was defeated and Emir Abd er Rahman was killed. The battle stopped the northward advancement of Islam from Spain ||
 * 294. Five Pillars ||  The 5 religious duties of Muslims (confession of faith, fasting during Ramadan, zakat, hajj)  ||
 * 295. harem || living quarters reserved for wives and concubines and female relatives in a Muslim household that showed wealth and power. ||
 * 296. hijrah || Mohammad’s flight from Mecca to Medina in 622 ||
 * 297. Ka'aba || Islamic shrine in Mecca; focus of annual truce and trade among Bedouin tribes ||
 * 298. People of the Book || (dhimmi) Christians and Jews who shared the Bible with Muslims, but could be taxed by Muslims ||
 * 299. Ramadan || Islamic month of fasting from dawn to sunset ||
 * 300. shariah || Islamic law ||
 * 301. umma || community of the faithful within Islam which creates political unity ||
 * 302. zakat || bligatory tax for Muslims used for charity (one of the five pillars) ||
 * 303. benefice || A landed estate granted in feudal tenure. ||
 * 304. excommunication || banishment from certain religion & Church ||
 * 305. investiture || The act or formal ceremony of conferring the authority and symbols of a high office (there was investiture controversy – who got to do it) ||
 * 306. medieval || relating to the Middle Ages from about 1100-1500 ||
 * 307. Middle Ages || Time period between the postclassical era and the renaissance. Consists of Dark Ages and the High Middle Ages, in which the latter saw an improvement in trade, economy, and lives of peasants; from about 1100-1500 ||
 * 308. moldboard plow || plow invented during the Middle Ages to improve farming efficiency ||
 * 311. caravel || a small, highly maneuverable, three-masted ship used by the Portuguese and Spanish for long voyages of exploration beginning in the 15th century ||
 * 312. griots || A West African poet, praise singer, and wandering musician, considered a repository of oral tradition and ancestral knowlegde ||
 * 313. kamikaze || a legendary typhoon said to have saved Japan from a Mongol invasion fleet in 1281. In Japanese, the word "kamikaze" is used only for this typhoon ||
 * 314. Khan || Mongol ruler ||
 * 315. lateen sail || a triangular sail set on a long yard mounted at an angle on the mast, and running in a fore-and-aft direction. It was adopted in the Late Middle Ages, and allowed Europeans were able to sail out of the Mediterranean ||
 * 317. Maori || indigenous people of New Zealand ||
 * 319. Middle Kingdom || What China called itself. Idea of ethnocentrism by the Chinese ||
 * 320. Ming dynasty || Dynasty after Yuan founded by the peasant Zhu Yuanjhan ||
 * 321. Mongol Peace || Pax Mongolica - Mongols brought peace to almost the entire Asian continent because they tolerated and encouraged diversity, especially religions; trade along the silk road flourished ||
 * 322. stateless society || an ethnic group not represented by its own unique, coterminous state ||
 * 323. steppe diplomacy || Institution that the Mongols employed to all empires under its control. Paying tribute was a major aspect. ||
 * 324. syncretism || An attempt to merge disparate traditions or practices and combine them with another tradition, including religion ||
 * 325. Anasazi || A native American culture flourishing in southern Colorado, Utah, northern New Mexico, and Arizona ||
 * 328. chinampas || Also known as floating gardens, small, rectangle-shapes area of fertile arable land used for agriculture in the Xochimilco region of the Basin of Mexico ||
 * 330. Mississippians || People of the Mississippi plains ||
 * 331. mita || Mandatory public service by society in ancient South America. During the Inca empire, public service was required in public works projects such as the building of road and military services ||