*Unit+1+Vocab

Unit 1 Vocab:

1. __Culture__: A civilization’s art, music, economy, politics, and anything else that identifies and separates the civilization from others. 2. __Artifacts__: Items left over by ancient civilizations that show glimpses into the civilization. 3. __Hominid__: Any bipedal (two legged) primate of the family Hominidae (modern or extinct), including the species within the Homo genus. This term refers to early humans, great apes, and modern evolutions, such as the //Homo// Sapiens, and most modern primates. 4. __Paleolithic Era__: The Old Stone Age ending in 12,000 B.C.E.; typified by use of crude stone tools and hunting and gathering for substance. Period dates between 2.6 million BCE. to 10,000 BCE. Era begins with the crudest development of stone tools, and ends with fully “modern” human hunting and gathering societies. 5. __Nomads__: Groups of people that move from place to place. Oldest way of life. Hunting and gathering societies were nomads. They would usually migrate with the seasons, following plants and wild game. 6. __Animism:__ Religious idea where its believed that there are souls in all things, alive and inanimate. The spirit would exist as an immaterial soul. This was around before monotheistic religions. Examples of animistic religions include: Shinto, Buddhism, Hinduism, Paganism, and Pantheism. 7. __Hunter-gatherer__: The means by which early human species gathered subsistence before the development of sedentary agriculture. Hunting and Gathering is the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild. 8. __Homo erectus__: An extinct species of humans, regarded as an ancestor of Homo sapiens. Homo erectus is a primarily European and Asian species that dates from 300,000 to 1.7 million years ago. 9. __Homo Sapiens__: The human species that emerged as most successful at the end of the Paleolithic period. Evidence suggest that this more advanced type of human killed off or displaced many competitors over time, which would explain why there is only one basic type of human throughout the world today. All humans in the world today are descendants of homo sapiens. The success of this species means that there have been no major changes in basic human physique or brain size. The earliest variation of Homo sapiens were the Neanderthals that appeared 100,000 to 250,000 years ago. The more advanced Cro-Magnon appeared 60,000 to 100,000 years ago during the Paleolithic Age. Both used advanced tools, wore clothing, created semi-permanent or permanent dwellings, and organized into social groups. They spread from Europe to Africa and Asia. 10. __Flint__: It is a hard form of the mineral quartz. It was used for the manufacture of flint tools during the Stone Age because it splits into thin, sharp splinters called flakes or blades when struck by another hard object. It was then used to make cutting tools and weapons because of its sharpness and hardness. This process of making the tools like this is called knapping. Flint also produces a spark when struck against steel.

11. __Ice Age:__ The ice age was a term for a geologic period time when temperatures on earth were reduced, temporarily resulting in the development of ice sheets. The first last age began approximately 22,000 years ago and ended when temperatures elevated. 12. __Lascaux Cave:__ The Lascaux Caves was a massive system of caves in Southwestern France that is famous for the elaborate number of Paleolithic Cave paintings that it houses. The paintings are estimated to be around 17,300 years old. Most of the paintings are of the primitive large animals of the time.

13. __Neolithic Era:__ The Neolithic era was also referred to as the new Stone Age and it started around 10,200 BCE. It was the time period in which man adopted agriculture as a way of life and began to domesticate plants and animals. 14. __Neolithic Revolution:__ The Neolithic revolution was the succession of technological innovations that took place around 10,200 BCE and eventually led to the development and use of agriculture and settlement. The Neolithic revolution ended hunting and gathering. 15. __Domestication:__ To tame (an animal, plant), especially by generations of breeding, to live in close association with human beings as a pet or work animal and usually creating a dependency so that the animal loses its ability to live in the wild. The first animals known to be domesticated were sheep in the Middle East in 9000-7000 BCE. 16. __Nomadism:__ A way of life in which a community has no permanent settlement, but moves from place to place, usually seasonally, and within a defined territory. For hunting and gathering societies, nomadism does not imply aimless wandering, but suggests an organized rotation of settlements to ensure maximum use of available natural resources. Nomadism was replaced with agriculture around 9,000 - 8,000 BCE. 17. __Pastoralists__- Pastoralism is the practice of herding domesticated or partially domesticated animals and relying on them for sustenance and commerce. It developed along with agriculture as another way of life. Being closely related to a nomadic lifestyle, it was more dangerous than agriculture, but proved to be an effective way of living that was passed down from generation to generation within families. The pastoralists were the practitioners of this specialization. 18. __Megaliths__- Large stone structures or formations of stone structures. Typically located in areas of significance, many megaliths are believed to be of religious importance to their respective constructors. They can be any large structure made of stone including tombs and standing structures. 19. __Bronze Age__ - The Bronze Age of a culture is the period when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) in that culture used bronze. Lasted from 3300 BCE - 1200 BCE. The place and time of the invention of bronze are debated. This period is characterized by the full adoption of bronze in many regions, namely the Iberian Peninsula. The Bronze Age was a time of heavy use of metals, and of developing trade networks

20. __Jericho__ - Jericho is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian Territories. It has a population of over 20,000. It is situated well below sea level on the Dead Sea. Jericho is the lowest permanently in habited site on earth. It translates as the "City of Palm Trees" in the Hebrew Bible. The first successful settlement dated back to 9000 BCE, by the Canaanite people. It consisted of a number of walls, a religious shrine, and a 23 foot tower with an internal staircase 21. __Catal Huyuk__: A large Neolithic settlement in Anatolia (Turkey) around 7500 BCE to 5700 BCE. It is the largest and most preserved Neolithic settlement to date. 22. __Surplus__: Having an amount or quantity that exceeds what is needed. 23. __Division of labor__: dividing a job into many specialized parts, with a single worker or a few workers assigned to each part. Division of labor is important to mass production. When the Neolithic Revolution took place, agriculture caused a need for division of labor and people no longer had the same job of hunting and gathering. 24. __Civilization__: an advanced state of human society, in which a high level of culture, science, industry, and government has been reached. The emergence of civilization occurred in many though not all agricultural societies. It often built on additional changes in technology including the introduction of metal tools. Most civilizations had common features including cities, writing, and formal states. Early civilizations formed in Mesopotamia, Egypt (Nile River Valley), the Indus River basin, and China (Yellow River Valley). 25. __Artisans__: Artisans are specialized workers. They came about when agriculture forced people to become good at one thing this happened because nobody could do every job. So each person started to specialize in jobs such as metallurgy, healthcare, or making weapons. 26. __Cultural Diffusion__: Cultural diffusion is the process by which different cultures trade material objects like silk, salt, gold, or art, ideas such as the concept of zero, or behavior patterns like how to wear clothing are spread from one society to another. 27. __Specialization:__ The focus on a specific talent or skill. Specialization was a result of agriculture, because after humans settled down in one area and started farming, they had much more free time, allowing them to explore different branches of art, science, mathematics, warfare and much more. This led to many different discoveries about our world and how it works. An example of this is that many men developed and used stone tools and weapons to hunt game and fight wars. After the agricultural revolution, a few men were designated to building tools and weapons, while other men were assigned different jobs, allowing the weapon/tool builders to experiment and see what worked well, and what didn't. 28. __Fertile Crescent:__ A very fertile, crescent shaped area that stretches from just south of today's Jerusalem, northward along the Mediterranean Sea to present-day Syria, east through modern-day Iraq, and then southward along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to the Persian Gulf. It is in this area that agriculture is believed to have been first developed, and as a result of agriculture, cities and towns started to spring up in this area. 29. __Mesopotamia__: "The land between rivers" it was the Tigris- Euphrates river systems surrounding area, in present day Iraq, Iran, and Turkey. It was the land where the Sumer, Babylonian, and Assyrians empires started. The area was very fertile so therefore the societies flourished.

30. __Ziggurats__: Meaning: "To build on raised area”. They were large pyramid like structures built in Mesopotamia. The Sumerians, Babylonian, and Assyrians built them as part of complex temple systems. They were believed to be the dwelling places of the gods, not places for public worship. Only priests were allowed in so they could take care of the gods. Practically they could be used by the priests to escape flood waters, and for other security reasons. 31. __City-State__: A form of political organization typical of Mesopotamian civilizations; consisted of agricultural hinterlands ruled by an urban-based king. These city-states are sovereign and consist of an autonomous city that has similar tendencies. Example, the city-states of ancient Greece and the Sumerian cities of Mesopotamia.

32. __Polytheism__: Polytheism is the belief of multiple deities or gods along with goddesses. These Gods or Goddesses usually have their own mythologies and rituals. Polytheists don't worship all these gods equally. Example, the varying gods and goddesses of Hinduism. 33. __Cuneiform__: the earliest writing system, created by the Sumerians of the Mesopotamian region. Cuneiform was originally impressed onto clay or stone tablets, and the impressions were wedge shaped. Cuneiform eventually developed into the syllabic alphabet. The significance of cuneiform is that it was the first writing system. 34. __Sumerians__: the people of the Mesopotamia region around 3000 BCE. These people created city-states around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Sumerians developed writing (cuneiform), the 60 second minute, inventions such as the wheel and the plow, bronze usage, and were very urban with massive cities such as Ur and Urik. 35. __Sargon__ (the great): Semitic ruler who conquered the Sumerians and all of southern Mesopotamia in 2334 to 2279 BCE. He built the Akkadian Empire and established the first Semitic dynasty. 36. __Hammurabi__: Babylonian King from 1792 to 1750 BCE. Extended his empire to include all of Mesopotamia. Wrote the first written code of law, “Hammurabi‘s Code,” which may have influenced the 10 commandments. 37. __Library at Ninevah__: A library was found in the Assyrian province of Ninevah. Multiple cuneiform tablets were found there with details of Assyrian culture. 38. __Indo-Europeans:__ A group called the Aryans who were very warlike took over India in 1500 BCE. No one knows where they came from. __39. Hittites:__ Ancient Anatolian people who created a kingdom in North-Central Anatolia around the 18th century BCE. They reached their height around the 14th century BCE, when they encompassed part of northwestern Syria and upper Mesopotamia. Their kingdom was centered at the capitol of Hattusa. Around 1180 BCE, the Hittite empire disintegrated into smaller city-states and eventually faded away. 40. __Assyrians:__ A people who trace their roots back to pre-Islamic Mesopotamia. Around the 8th century BCE, Aramaean tribes assimilated into the Assyrian empire and brought with them the language Aramaic. Between 100 and 300 CE, the Assyrians converted to Christianity, which turned them into a minority when Mesopotamia became a mostly Islamic area after a conquest in the 8th century CE. 41. __Babylonians__: Babylonia was a southern Mesopotamian culture in modern day Iraq. the significance of Babylonia lies in the emergence of the Hammurabi's code, outlining one of the earliest forms of written laws, and also by capturing and bringing 10,000 slaves from Jerusalem to Babylonia, the Babylonian culture had a Subsequent impact on the old testament and therefore influences millions of people even today.

42. __Hebrews__: the Hebrews were a small nomadic group of tribes that, while being dwarfed in size by other civilizations for their early years. exerted perhaps the most influence over western intellectual thought. they of course, among other achievements, wrote the old testament, forever changing the religious political and intellectual life of the western world. 43: __Abraham__- A prophet for god. One day was sent by god to take possession of the land Canaan. While in Canaan he underwent a covenant with god. In exchange for Abraham recognizing that Yahweh was the only god; Abraham’s descendents would be blessed and given this land (“The promised land”). Abraham’s actions have most heavily influence the creation of Judaism but have also heavily influence Christianity and Islam. 44: __David__- (1040 BCE- 970 BCE) was the Second king of the United Kingdom of Israel. He is the descendent of Abraham and ancestor of Jesus Christ. At a young age he developed a very heavy reliance upon god. He wrote many of the psalms that exist today. He was crowned king by Samuel after Saul was deemed a failure of a king. David always held great faith in god and was rewarded by god many times. He committed adultery but god forgave him and of course the David and goliath story shows how influential god can be. David shows the importance of prayer and illustrates the very fabric of Christianity (the lord’s forgiving nature). 45. __Solomon__: Known as the greatest king of Israel, Solomon was also said to be extremely wise, wealthy, and fair. He expanded his empire through alliances and marriage, but is most well-known for constructing the Temple of Solomon, also known as the Temple of Jerusalem or the First Temple. This was a religious center point for Judaism and housed the Ark of the Covenant. Solomon is also said to have written three sections in the Bible, including Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs or Song of Solomon. 46. __Zion__: Once source describes Zion as "the spiritual point from which reality emerges.” This word is used in different contexts to refer to Jerusalem, Mount Zion where a fortress was conquered by David (City of David), or the promised land of Israel. It can also be used to symbolize Solomon’s Temple. Later, the term Zionism was used for a political movement to establish a “national home” or independent state for Jews. 47. __Chaldeans__- An empire from Arabia that controlled the city of Ur. In 721 BCE, a Chaldean ruler took power in Babylon and ruled for 10 years. In 597 BCE and 586 BCE, the Chaldeans conquered Judaea and Jerusalem under the rule of Nebuchadnezzar II. They captured the Jews and while the Jews were under their captivity they wrote the old testament.  48. __Phoenician__- An early civilization located on the Eastern Mediterranean coast (they were incredible sailors). The Phoenicians were most famous for their use of an alphabet. They are credited for inventing the basis of modern day alphabet, hence “phonics”. Phoenicians were eventually conquered by Cyrus during Persian expansion. 49. __Nebuchadnezzar II__- In 605 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II became the king of Babylonia after his father died. He restored Babylon after it had been falling to pieces, and even instated the Hanging Gardens (one of the 7 wonders of the world). In 586 BCE he conquered Western Syria and destroyed Jerusalem 50. __Epic of Gilgamesh__- Oldest written story in the history of the world. Written in Cuneiform, it may have been the predecessor to, and had influence over, the Hebrew Bible. It taught values to society, and included stories about great floods and paradise gardens, similar to those in the Bible, such as Noah’s Arc. 51. __Judaism__- the religion of the Jewish people, tracing its origins back the Hebrew people of the middle- east, as documented in the Torah or Old Testament. Judaism was the first monotheistic religion and believes there is one God who is omnipotent (all powerful), omniscient (all knowing) and omnipresent (in all places at all times). They also believe God is just and merciful.

52. __Torah__- Means “to teach.” The Torah contains the basis and history of Judaism and all of the laws of Judaism. The Torah refers either to the Five Books of Moses or to the entirety of Judaism's founding legal and ethical religious texts. 53. __Covenant:__ A promise to refrain from a specified action. It is commonly found in religious contexts, where it refers to sacred agreements between God and human beings. It is also found in the legal area relating to contracts and Laws. It is the main idea between God and people of the Jewish faith. 54. __Exodus__: A journey by a large group to escape from a hostile environment. The second book of the Old Testament tells of the departure of the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt led by Moses. The Book of Exodus is also the second book of the Torah and the Christian Bible. 55. __D____iaspora____:__ Jews living outside the Holy Land. This was originally used to denote the scattering of the Jews after the destruction of the first temple and forced exile to Babylonia in 586 BCE. 56. __Dead Sea Scrolls:__ ancient leather and papyrus scrolls first discovered in 1947 in caves on the NW shore of the Dead Sea. Most of the documents were written or copied between the 1st century BCE and the first half of the 1st century CE. Copies of the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament, and documents from an ascetic community are found on these scrolls. 57. __Talmud__: The Talmud is the basic book of Jewish and Babylonian law and tradition. There are two editions of the Talmud: the Babylonian and the Jerusalem Talmud. The Babylonian Talmud is the most relevant and more widely known. 58. __Linear B__: Linear B is the oldest surviving record of the Greek dialect known as Mycenaean, used in Mycenae where the legendary Agamemnon ruled. The script's usage spanned the time period between approximately 1375 BCE and 1200 BCE. The script consists mostly of syllabic signs, and a base-10 number system. Linear B was found mostly on clay tablets and a lot of them are lists of materials and goods. 59. __Nile River__: Runs through Egypt and supplied Ancient Egyptians with food, water, and survival. Egypt was located in a dry and arid climate and they needed water for drinking, agriculture, fishing and many others. Without the Nile, the Egyptians would’ve perished immediately. They even had myths of creation that showed that all life, as they knew it, came from the Nile River. In addition to survival, the Nile was also a military defense because it protected the Egyptians from southern kingdoms, who couldn’t transport themselves up the river. 60. __Delta cataracts__: Delta cataracts are large waterfalls in the Nile that split up into smaller rivers. These protected the Egyptians from the southern kingdoms because they couldn’t transport themselves up the current. They also enriched the soil because smaller streams and rivers spread around more water and made it ideal for farming. 61. __Menes__: An ancient pharaoh who is credited with uniting the Upper and Lower parts of Egypt under one empire for the first time. He also introduced the worship of the gods and founded the cities of Crocodilopolis and Memphis. He was thought to have ruled between 3100-2850 B.C.E. as the 1st ruler of the 1st dynasty in Egypt. There is, however, some debate as to whether or not his name was also Narmer or Aha, making it possible that three different rulers from Egypt were actually the same person. 62. __Pharaoh__: the title given to ancient rulers of Egypt, both upper and lower regions, by modern day archaeologists. Literally means "great house" and is derived from the name for the king’s palace. However, it was gradually changed to mean the ruler himself. Although most rulers were males, there were great female rulers and they are still referred to as pharaohs. 63. __Theocracy__: a system of government where a god or deity is the supreme ruler. It can also be a society where priests claim a divine commission to rule and there is no legal separation of church and state. Examples today include Israel and Iran. 64. __Bureaucracy__: a body of nonelected government officials; usually administrative groups who create policies. It is used and very developed in China today. 65. __Hatshepsut__: She was a woman pharaoh and remained in power for twenty years, the longest of any other woman ruler in Egypt. During this time, as the Egyptian economy flourished, she expanded trading relations and built magnificent temples as well as restored many others. 66. __Ramses the Great__: King Ramses the Great reined for 67 years during the 19th dynasty of the 12th century BCE. He was known as one of Egypt's greatest warriors and for the monuments he left behind all over Egypt. He was the first king in history to sign a peace treaty with his enemies, the Hittites, ending long years of wars and hostility. King Ramses reigned for 67 years (1292–1225 BCE). Under him, Egypt acquired unprecedented splendor. The period of his rule was characterized by great luxury, increased slavery, and the growth of a mercenary army, all of which led to the final decline of Egypt. 67. __Pyramids__: These were built as tombs for the Egyptian Pharaohs. There are about eighty pyramids known today in Egypt. The shape of a pyramid was thought to represent a ray of sun. Most pyramids were built from 2630 BCE to 1814 BCE. Inside each pyramid is a series chambers and trap rooms to protect the Pharaoh’s tomb from grave robbers. Each pyramid is made from limestone weighing 1 ton or more stacked on top of each other in very complex and mathematical ways. Each pyramid is built from at least 2 million limestone rocks and takes years to build with thousands of men. They were built to represent immortality for the Pharaohs. Every Pharaoh’s dream was to live forever, and as long as their pyramid stands, they will. 68. __Nubia__: A region along the Nile river. This region contains many cities such as Luxor, Aswan, Abu Simbel, Wadi Halfa, Dongola, Napata, Meroe, and Khartoum. Christianity and Islamic religions influenced these cities. Early settlements sprouted in Upper and Lower Nubia. Nubian Civilization originated in 5000 BC in Upper Nubia. Ancient Egypt conquered Nubian territory and turned parts of the area into provinces. However, the relationship between the two peoples were peaceful and even included intermarriages. 69. __Kush__- The first African civilization after Egypt. Egyptian civilization diffused toward the south and a new African kingdom was built up in the floodplain around the Nile. The capital city of Kush was Kerma and served as the major trading center for goods traveling north from the southern regions of Africa. Kush attained its greatest power and cultural energy between 1700 and 1500 BCE. 70. __Obelisk__- Ancient Egyptians believed if you did not have your name written down somewhere, that after your death, you would disappear. Pharaohs ordered huge monuments built so they would be remembered forever. These monuments provided places to write their name down in a public way. Some monuments were temples. Others were obelisks. Obelisks were made of stone, and built in pairs. Each obelisk was at least 70 feet tall. Each was decorated with writing telling of the great achievements of the person each obelisk honored. This information has told us a great deal about ancient Egyptian life. 71. __Mummification-__ When a new Pharaoh came to power in Egypt, they would build tombs for themselves for their deaths. After a Pharaohs death, people would perform rituals on the body and wrap it in cloth. This preserved the bodies for long periods of time, allowing us to get a better look at Ancient Egypt. Mummification not only included wrapping with cloth, but often jewelry and other valuables were wrapped inside as well. They covered them in plaster, using vibrant colors to paint them. 72. __Papyrus__- Papyrus was paper made by using the Papyrus plant. Egyptians used this to write hieroglyphics and hieratic scroll pieces. It was very common during Ancient Egypt, used often in everyday life, although it was very fragile. 73. __Scribes:__ In ancient Egypt, only a select few knew how to read and write. The task of recording history, and expressing everyday and extraordinary events was the job of most scribes. Scribes were significant because without them we would know much less about the Egyptian culture. 74. __Hieroglyphs:__ a symbol or picture used in hieroglyphic writing, the writing system used in ancient Egypt. This system was impossible to decipher until the Rosetta Stone was discovered. __76. Rosetta Stone:__ An ancient Egyptian stone that has the same passage written in Egyptian hieroglyphics, Egyptian demotic script (basically new hieroglyphics), and ancient Greek. It was written in these 3 languages because they were what the priests, government officials, and rulers of Egypt spoke/wrote, so they could all decipher it. The passage lists all the good things that the Pharaoh did for the people of Egypt. The Rosetta Stone was carved 196 BCE and found in 1799 by French soldiers. Once deciphered, it was the key to understanding Egyptian linguistics. 77. __Osiris__ : the primary deity of the Egyptian culture. He was the leader of the gods on Earth and second in power only to his father, Ra. He was also the husband and brother of Isis and became the god of the dead after he was murdered, reborn and forced to live in the Underworld. The vast majority of Egypt worshiped him. His religious center was called Abydos and placed a short distance from the Nile River. He symbolized the periodic flooding of the Nile and the growth that came with it. 78. __Isis__ : the oldest deity to survive the ages with relatively no change. All Egyptians worshiped her almost universally. Her temples exist all over Egypt and even the Greeks and Romans adopted some of her worship. She was not only Osiris sister and wife, but also his equal counterpart. They worked as a team to teach magic, medicine, and agriculture to the people of Egypt. She is not only known as an Egyptian goddess, but is worshipped throughout the entire world. 79. __Horus__: Egyptian god of the sun, sky, and life. He has the head of a falcon and the son of Osiris and Isis. Horus was one of the most significant deities and was worshiped from pre-dynastic Egypt until Greek and Roman times. He was also known for the vengeance of his father and as a savior. 80. __Anubis__: Greek god associated with mummification, death, and afterlife. He once was the most important god of the dead but was replaced by Osiris. Anubis had the head of a jackal-like animal. He performed the Opening of the Mouth ceremony and protected the dead from deception and eternal death. 81. __Shang__- The Shang Dynasty was the first dynastic family to rule over classical China. The Shang civilization was built around the Eastern part of the Yellow River. They were known for their use of oracle bones and were the first to use written language in China. They believed in a major god, Shang Ti, who ruled over lesser gods. They also believed in human sacrifice. 82. __Zhou__-Eventually the Shang dynasty was overthrown by the Zhou dynasty, who introduced the Mandate of Heaven, the god’s permission to rule. Once the Zhou seized power they incorporated feudalism. The Zhou extended the civilization to the Yangtze River and urged a central language. Eventually, war broke out and China was at war with itself for about 200 years before the Qin took over. 83. __Oracle Bones__: Inscriptions on the oracle bones represent one of the earliest existing forms of writing in China. Recorded in these inscriptions are accounts of important national events and the daily lives of the members of the royal household in the late Shang dynasty. Oracle bones were also used to practice a form of divination or fortune telling.

84. __Mandate of Heaven__: The Mandate of Heaven was an idea that started around the time of the Zhou dynasty and is a relationship between heaven and earth. If the emperor or king, having fallen into selfishness and corruption, fails to see to the welfare of the people, heaven withdraws its mandate and invests it in another. The only way to know that the mandate has passed is the overthrow of the king or emperor. 85. __Son of Heaven__- This term refers to the Emperor in China and predates the Qin dynasty. The Emperor is "the ruler of all below heaven". He is known as that because the mandate of heaven "says" that he should be ruling and he has the divine right to do so. 86. __Dynastic Cycle__- This is the cycle of rulers and ruling families that happened many times throughout China’s history. It explains the rise and fall of dynasties in China. The rise was because they had “gained” the mandate of heaven, which was their god, given right to rule, and the fall was because they had “lost” it. Such things that proved the ruling family had lost the Mandate were natural disasters and rebellions. It started with a new dynasty coming into power, and then the Emperor makes the government more efficient. Then the lives of commoners improve and taxes are reduced as well as farming being encouraged. After that, problems begin such as wars or invasions, then taxes increase and men work for the army and farming is neglected. Government increases spending which causes corruption and natural disasters to occur such as droughts or famines. The poor lose respect for the government and join the rebels to attack the landlords. They band together and find a leader that attacks the emperor. He is finally defeated and the cycle takes place again. 87. __Confucianism__: is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the philosopher Confucius. It stresses the proper relationships in society, such as father/son and subject/ruler. The principles include rights, rules, ritual, decorum, humaneness, benevolence, humanity, reciprocity, empathy, righteousness, and filial piety. Confucianism follows the idea that people are born with good intentions, and education as opposed to punishment is the right way to teach people lessons. 88. __Daoism__: a system of ideas and beliefs based on the teachings of Lao Tzu. He believed that people should live simply without interfering with nature or the natural order of things. Daoism suggests you should reject formal education, rely on your senses, find the rhythm of nature and ignore politics and social structures. 89. __Lao Tzu__: A philosopher in ancient China during the Zhou dynasty. He is the central figure in Daoism. His name means "old master" and is revered as a deity in most religious forms of Daoism.

90. __Qin__: The name of the third Chinese dynasty; origin of the name China. This dynasty greatly expanded the Chinese territory, built the Great Wall, standardized measurements, created a national census, and created the terracotta army. The real name is Shi Huangdi and was the emperor during the Qin dynasty.

91. __Terracotta Army__: A collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first Emperor of China. The figures, dating from 3rd century BCE, were discovered in 1974 by some local farmers in Lintong District. 92. __Great Wall__: a series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials, generally built along an east-to-west line across the historical northern borders of China. It was originally built to protect the Chinese Empire from intrusions made by various nomadic groups. 93. __Legalism__: a Chinese philosophy that said that humans are evil and we need laws to control them. It emerged during the warring states period and was the main policy of the Qin Dynasty. 94. __Han__- 2nd imperial dynasty of ancient China (206 BCE- 220 CE). It is considered to be the Golden Age of Ancient China, as the Chinese often call themselves “The Han People” to this day. 95.__Civil Service Exam__- The exam system in Imperial China designed to select the best administrative officials for the state's bureaucracy. The exam continues to influence present-day China 96. __Silk Road__: an extensive network of trade routes connecting east, south, and west Asia with the Mediterranean world. It spans the Karakul Desert, the Mediterranean Sea, the Fergana Valley, and numerous mountain ranges. It is used to this day and was the main avenue for cultural diffusion and trade in the ancient world 97. __Subcontinent__: A large self- contained amount of land, which forms a division of a continent. An example would be the subcontinent of India. 98. __Monsoons__: A strong seasonal wind that occurs between land and an adjoining body of water. They appear on the coasts of Asia and continue to destroy land and crops. 99. __Citadel__: A fortress made for protecting a town or a city, usually the last line of defense for a town. Its purpose was to provided protection to a town or city, and can also store food and supplies. For example, citadels existed in the ancient city of Mohenjo-Daro in India, which had thick and high walls. 100. __Vedas__: A set of large bodies of text developed by the Ancient Indians. The purpose of Vedas was to educate the people of India about Hinduism. The Vedas is about the knowledge that helps man realize his supreme goal in life. 101. __Rajas__- In the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, rajas is one of the three gunas. The Samkhya School is one of the six orthodox systems, and is strongly dualist. The gunas refers to the fundamental operating principles of universal nature, and consists of sattva, rajas, and tamas. Rajas emphasizes creation, action, excitement, and change. It is the opposite of tamas (destruction, inactivity) and is considered more positive than tamas but less positive than sattva (preservation, purity, and calm)**. ** 102. __Varnas__- refers to the main division of Hindu society into 4 social classes. These classes include the Brahmins (priests, teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (commoners, herders/farmers), and Shudras (servants), and go from highest to lowest in society in that order. The varnas were established by the Aryans when they invaded India around 1500 BCE to serve as a rigid social boundary between the invaders and the former inhabitants. The highest three classes (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas) consisted of the Aryan invaders that were able to be reborn, while the lowest class (Sudra) consisted of former inhabitants that were incapable of being reborn. The modern Hindu caste system evolved from the traditional four varnas, with more subgroups and the fifth untouchables class added. 103. __Castes__: characteristically formed in India and began to take shape during the Vedic and Epic ages as a means of establishing relationships between the Aryan conquerors and the indigenous people whom the Aryans regarded as inferior. 104. __Harappa__: a majorly advanced city that emerged along the Indus River. The houses in this city even had running water, community planning, and sewage control. All of the streets were similar to a grid and ran north to south and east to west. It was surrounded with high, thick city walls. 105. __Mohenjo Daro__- Mohenjo Daro was one of the largest city-settlements of the Indus Valley Civilization of ancient India in an area which is now modern day Pakistan. Along with Harappa, it is a major urban complex of the Harappan civilization. Mohenjo-daro in ancient times was most likely one of the administrative centers of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization. It was the most developed and advanced city in South Asia, and perhaps the world, during its peak. The planning and engineering showed the importance of the city to the people of the Indus valley. 106. __Indus River__- The Indus River supported prosperous urban civilizations such as Harappa and Mohenjo Daro. The river allowed trading contact between Mesopotamia however the Indus River people still developed their own writing and art forms. It is probably the most important river in Pakistan because it is a main water supply for agriculture and food production. The Indus River sources in the Himalayas to the mouth in Arabian Sea. 107. __Brahmins__: Brahmins began in the early Vedic era during the beginning of Hinduism. A Brahmin is a member of the priestly class in India, the highest class, they are expected to be able to interpret the old Hindu and Vedic scripts such as the Vedas. Brahmin and Brahman are not the same. Brahma or Brahman refers to the supreme being or god. Brahmin refers to the individuals who came from the Brahma’s mouth so that they could instruct the people. They conduct the daily rituals, purifications ceremonies and sacrifices, and live very strict lives as to set a code of conduct for the people. 108. __Kshatriyas__: “protector of gentle people.” Second of the Hierarchy of the class system they were Kings and Warriors. They supposedly came from the arms of Brahma so that they could protect the people and livestock. They were believed to be very brave and lived by a code of honor, the Hindus believed that only the Kshatriyas had the right to rule. They dominated Indian political life for centuries, they were the elite ruling class in the Vedas. 109. __Vaishyas__: A social class within the indian caste system, their main duties were farming, trading and selling goods. They are significant due to their credit with spreading indian culture around a large part of the ancient world. 110. __Shudras__: The lowest social class above the untouchables, they were tasked with peasant labor and slavery. Their main goal was to serve the other three classes. In early sanskrit history, it has been said that the top three castes were the Aryan invaders, while the bottom class, the shudras were the natives of india 111. __Untouchables__: The lowest class in the Indian/Hindu caste system do all the undesirable work like working with the dead, to touch an untouchable is considered degrading to any other higher caste. This is important because the caste system keeps everyone in their place and tells them you’re here because of what you did in the last life. This allowed Hinduism to last because any ruler would support it. 112. __Brahma__: The Hindu god of creation. All the other Hindu gods are just certain aspects of Brahma, Brahma being the most important god. Brahma is important because he is integral to the Hindu religion which shaped Ancient India and which still carries on today. 113. __Vishnu__: The preserver. He keeps the balance between good and evil. Sometimes, Vishnu will appear on Earth in one of his ten different human forms, like the Krishna, to save people from some form of evil. This is called an avatar. He has four hands and holds a conch ​shell, a razor-sharp disk, a lotus, and a club or mace. He is one of the three major Hindu ​gods. 114. __Shiva__: God of Fertility and the lord of creation and destruction. One of the three major Hindu gods. He is made of the forces of the universe and Hindus believe that the Ganga River comes out of his head. His third eye represents the sun, moon, and the Supreme Force. This eye will destroy enemies and gives wisdom to the good. Shiva carries a trident, ​conch shell, and has many hands. His love of dance represents the movement of the world. 115. __Hinduism__: The dominant religion of India is Hinduism. It originated from the Vedic and Epic Ages. Hinduism holds many gods; however, it has a main god, Brahma. Hinduism supports the caste system, which is why it has been able to survive until modern day. 116. __Dharma__: In Hinduism, Dharma is one’s righteous duty. A Hindu’s dharma is affected by a person’s class, occupation, gender, and age. In Buddhism, dharma is the law of moral consequences. When Asoka converted to Buddhism, he though of Dharma as an ethical guide that would unite and discipline people under his rule. 117. __Karma__: “The law of cause and effect” The Indian belief that humans have free will to choose good or evil and deal with the consequences, positive or negative. This view was adopted from Brahmin orthodoxy. Also the concept that if you do badly in this life, it will effect you in the next. 118. __Moksha__: In Indian religion, the release of the suffering involved in being subject to the cycle of constant rebirth. You can obtain Moksha by practicing a form of yoga. In the state of Moksha lie ultimate peace, knowledge, and ultimate enlightenment. 119. __Reincarnation__: The belief that after a person dies their soul will be brought back in another shape or form depending on how they acted in the previous life. This belief mainly pops up in Hinduism and Buddhism. An example of reincarnation in Hinduism, if someone behaves well in the caste system, they will be rewarded by moving up in the caste system, while in Buddhism, if someone becomes enlightened (reaching nirvana), they will be released of reincarnation, which in turn releases them from “suffering.” 120. __Vedas__: The original scripts that outline many rituals and hymns practiced in the Hindu belief system. From these four “documents” comes the main part of the Hindu belief system. The Rig-vedas were first introduced by the Assyrians. 121. __Upanishads__: The philosophical texts of Hinduism. They are used to interpret Hindu values on the world and various other topics including how someone can obtain “Brahman” (or the Ultimate Reality), and achieve salvation. This can only be done according to the Upanishads, when one follows the four means of salvation: discrimination, dispassion, the six-fold treasure, and liberation. Thus the meaning of “Upanishads” comes into play as it literally translates into ‘secret doctrine’ because it requires one to follow the means of salvation during their lifetime, and few people ever follow them. 122. __Bhagavad-Gita__: A sacred Hindu scripture that is important to the history of literature and philosophy. The reason for this is because the teacher of Bhagavad-Gita (Gita) was said to be the Lord Krishna who is the manifestation of God in Hinduism. The Gita contains an epic where Krishna talks to Arjuna (a so called invincible archer from Hindu religion) about the duties Arjuna faces as a warrior and a prince. The basics of the Gita is that it is a guide to Hinduism and its ideals on life. 123. __Yoga__ : Originated in India during the Age of Gold in order to ascend spiritually and free oneself from suffering, and end the cycle of birth and rebirth. The practice was set off by a growth of capitalism in India, which made people look for a way to keep their culture through spirituality. The practices were first recorded in 600 BCE. 124. __Jainism__ : Believed to have originated from a certain yoga practice, and grew to become a whole religion. It emphasized that all beings had a soul, and could, through its own efforts, reach human form eventually. This meant that they would harm no living creature. They also rejected any material possessions. Jainism had a large impact on the political culture and values, and also influenced main Hindu beliefs. They influenced the language and writing of India, because a Jain monk contributed to the development of their writing. They also influenced the food, as they were vegetarian. 125. __Ahimsa__: Ahimsa is a religious concept which promotes non-violence and a respect for all life. Ahimsa is Sanskrit for avoidance of himsa, or injury. It is interpreted most often as meaning peace and reverence toward all beings. Ahimsa is the core of Hinduism, Janism, and Buddhism. Ahimsa was introduced to the West by the Ganhdi. The more recent popularity of yoga and meditation in the west has also served to introduce many westerners to Ahimsa and other Hindu concepts. 126. __Buddhism__: A religion, originated in India by Buddha (Gautama) and later spreading to China, Burma, Japan, Tibet, and parts of southeast Asia, holding that life is full of suffering caused by desire and that the way to end this suffering is through enlightenment that enables one to halt the endless sequence of births and deaths to which one is otherwise subject. A Buddha is basically described as a person who "wakes up" from the "sleep of ignorance". This is done through constant efforts such as meditation and abstaining from materialistic pleasures. 127. __Buddha__: In Buddhism, being a Buddha means you have achieved perfect enlightenment. Siddhartha Guatama, the founder of Buddhism, is referred to as Buddha, but only because he achieved this state; anyone could be a Buddha. 128. __Four Noble Truths__- very important foundation of Buddhism; 1.pain is universal 2. the cause of pain is greed 3. greed can be overcome by realizing the truth and letting go of illusions 4.following the eight-fold path leads to step three**. ** 129. __Eightfold Path__: One of the 4 Nobel Truths in Buddhism, that is made up of 8 rights. For example, right speech, right behavior, etc. The eightfold path must be followed in order to reach Nirvana. 130. __Nirvana__: Literally means "extinction". Nirvana is the union with the ultimate spiritual reality. Once Nirvana is reached, the cycle of rebirth is broken. This is a major Buddhist principle. 131. __Middle Way__: this is the way that Siddhartha Gautama described the character of the path that lead to liberation. The Buddha describes the middle way as a path of moderation between the extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification. It is the eight fold path. The eight fold path is as follows: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right lively hood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. This path is used in Buddhism it achieve enlightenment. 132. __Chandragupta Mauyran__: conquered most of the Indian sub-continent. He defeated the Persian leader that had been appointed by Alexander the great. He is considered the first unifier of India and the first genuine emperor. His grandson was Asoka. His rule lasted about 24 years. His government was totalitarian. 133. __Kautilya__ ** ( **Chanakya** ) **: Kautilya was Chandragupta Maurya’s primary advisor, and the architect of his rise to power. He was born into the Brahmin class. He wrote Arthashastra, a Sanskrit text that supported similar policies of legalism. This Political philosophy was the basis of the Mauryan Empire. 134. __Asoka__: Asoka was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. He expanded the empire’s borders to include the entire Indian subcontinent besides the southernmost tip. He was a ruthless militant leader that expanded his borders by conquering the surrounding peoples. In one conquest in Kalinga, a neighboring state, he is recorded as killing 100,000 and enslaving 150,000 people. Although later in life he became a devout Buddhist, he attempted to balance Kautilya’s teachings as well as Buddhist philosophy in his rule. He built hundreds of rock edicts and pillars throughout his country, and established wells and roads for travel and trade. 135. __Stupas__: Stupas were spherical shrines to Buddha that were built by order of Ashoka during the classical period in Ancient India. They are significant because they were places of worship for Buddhists and each piece of architecture symbolized an element. The square base represents earth, the hemispherical dome represents water, the spire represents fire, the upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represents air, and the sun and the dissolving point represents space. The tree of life is used in every stupa as well. There were thousands of stupas built but the eight that are most significant represent important of Siddhartha Gautama or Buddha’s life. For example the Lotus Blossom Stupa represents the birth of Buddha and the Enlightenment Stupa represents when Siddhartha Gautama became enlightened. 136. __Sati__: Sati is the Hindu funeral ritual for immolation or suicide by fire that women used or were forced into at their husband’s funeral. This solved the problem of surplus women in India that could no longer have a husband. The ritual comes from the goddess Sati who self-immolated because she couldn’t bear her father’s humiliation of her husband Shiva. This word can also mean the widow herself. The ritual was outlawed in 1829. The significance is that women were so dedicated to their husbands and religion or pressured by their communities to kill themselves that it was just an accepted part of life. An example would be when the Greek historian, Aristobulus, wrote about Sati that he witnessed in Taxila while on Alexander’s expedition to India. 137. __Cyrus the Great__- Established massive Persian Empire by 550 BCE across the northern Middle East and into northwestern India. Cyrus the Great was a tolerant ruler who allowed different cultures within his empire to keep their own institutions. The Greeks call him the “law giver”. The Jews call him “the anointed of the lord”. He allowed them to reform to Palestine. Although he was tolerant of local customs, the Persians still advanced iron technology, developed Zoroastrianism and a lively artistic style. Persian language and culture went on to survive in the northeastern portion of the Middle East and went on to occasionally affect other regions. 138. __Darius I__: The king of Persia that ruled from 550 B.C.E. to 486 B.C.E. Darius I was the 3rd emperor of the Persian Empire, and was the emperor that attempted to invade Greece. This emperor caused an invasion of Greece to occur, but suffered a loss at the Battle of Marathon. This stiffened tensions between Greek and Persia, which caused Xerxes I, Darius’s son, to have a war with Greece. 139. __Persepolis__: One of the capitals of the Achaemenid Civilization that was founded by Darius the Great. The people of this city did not pay taxes, and it was the known as a city of festivals and entertainment. It was also known for its Audience Hall, or Apadana, which could contain hundreds of people at the same time, and was important for the city’s entertainment and politics. 140. __Satrap__: A ruler of a province within the Ancient Achaemenian political system. The provinces they ruled were often referred to as satrapies. These rulers were generally of the noble class, and were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining the army, security of the people, and they were usually the main judicial authority of their province. 141. __Xerxes__: Xerxes I ruled from 485 - 465 BCE, presiding over ancient Persia's decline from mighty power to fading empire. His father Darius was defeated by the Greeks at the battle of Marathon (490 BCE), and 10 years later Xerxes assembled a vast army to invade Greece and avenge his father's defeat. He broke with the policy followed by Cyrus the Great and Darius of ruling foreign lands with a fairly light hand and ruthlessly ignored Egyptian forms. Xerxes crossed the Hellespont (now called the Dardanelles) and methodically overran Greece. He won a costly victory at Thermopylae - the famous battle which ended with 300 Spartan warriors defying the entire Persian army in a last battle to the death - and finally reached Athens and sacked the deserted city. But the invasion ended in disaster when the Persian navy was routed by the Greek fleet at Salamis (480 B.C.). Xerxes retreated to his palace in Persepolis, leaving behind an occupying army which was defeated by the Greeks shortly thereafter. Persia remained a formidable nation but Xerxes withdrew from active life, devoting himself to what Herodotus called "the intrigues of the harem." 15 years later Xerxes was stabbed to death, probably by his subordinate Artabanus, and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes.

142. __Zoroaster__: Prophet and teacher that founded a new religion, Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster, also known by the Greek name Zarathrustra, wrote down his beliefs in a sacred book known as the "Zend Avesta". Arising out of the polytheistic traditions of ancient India and Iran, he was one of the first monotheists in human history. Zarathushtra preached that there was one God, whom he called Ahura Mazda. Ahura means "Lord," and Mazda means "Wise," so Zoroastrians call God the "Wise Lord." The central theme of Zoroastrianism is a belief in a struggle between good and evil. The basic scripture of Zoroastrianism is a set of 5 poetic songs called the Gathas, which were composed by Zarathushtra himself and have been preserved through the millennia by Zoroastrian priests. They are composed in a very ancient language known as Avestan, which is closely related to Sanskrit. In the Gathas, Zarathushtra preached that the One God, Ahura Mazda, is transcendent, but he is in constant relationship with human beings and the world God created through his Attributes. These Attributes are how God reaches the world, and how the world reaches God. These attributes are called the Amesha Spentas, or "Bounteous Immortals." Each one of these embodies an attribute of God, as well as a human virtue. Zoroastrianism does not teach or believe in reincarnation or karma. Zoroastrians believe that after life on earth, the human soul is judged by God as to whether it did more good or evil in its life. Those who chose good over evil go to what Zarathustra referred to simply as the "best existence," or heaven, and those who chose evil go to the "worst existence," or hell. Zoroastrianism was one of the first religions to give the afterlife a moral dimension. Zoroastrianism also believes in the progress of sacred time, and the eventual end of time. The belief is that the collective good acts of humanity will slowly transform the imperfect material world into its heavenly ideal. This is known as the "frasho-kereti," or "making-fresh," that is, renewal. At the end of time everything and everyone will be purified, even the souls in hell - so hell is not eternal. 143. __Dualism__: A state of two parts. During the classical period in India, a philosopher named Dharmakirti believed in dualism between basic consciousness and basic beliefs of Buddhism. Elements such as dualism made Buddhism seem like an adaptable set of beliefs to the people of India. 144. __Polis__: a city, a city-state, and a citizenship and body of citizens. It originates from the ancient Greek city-states. Instead of being ruled by a king or a small oligarchy, it is a political entity ruled by a body of citizens. The idea of a polis influenced countless civilizations for years to come. 145. __Acropolis__: Acropolis means highest city in Greek. In some early cities an acropolis would become the center of the city and the city would be built around the acropolis with the acropolis elevated above the rest of the city. One famous example of an acropolis is the Acropolis of Athens, where the famous Parthenon was built and is sometimes just called The Acropolis. 146. __Agora__: In ancient Greek city-states the agora was a place of public assembly around the 10th century to 8th century BCE. Free-born, land owning males would gather here to hear statements of the people in power. The agora was also a marketplace where merchants sold their goods. 147. __Helots__: An un-free population in Sparta. They were tied to the land they worked, making them the agricultural producers of the area. Were often mistreated and sometimes even killed. They would take care of domestic duties allowing the citizens to focus on becoming the best foot soldiers in Greece. 148. __Hoplites__: Citizen-soldiers of the Ancient Greek City-states. Hoplites were primarily armed as spear-men and fought in a phalanx formation. The hoplite was primarily a free citizen who was usually individually responsible for procuring his armor and weapon. In most Greek states, citizens received at least basic military training, serving in the standing army for a certain amount of time and were expected to take part in any military campaign they would be called up for. 149. __Hubris__: Hubris is Greek word that means to have excessive pride or arrogance. When a man or protagonist in Greek legend personified hubris, they usually met their demise through their own exemplification of the word. Perhaps one of the most vivid examples of hubris in ancient Greek literature is demonstrated by Achilles and his treatment of his rival Hector's corpse in Homer's famous novel The Iliad. After killing Hector out of revenge, Achilles proceeds to drag his enemy's body around behind his chariot, threading leather thongs through Hector's ankles. Achilles own death (his well known Achilles heel) is prophesied in the stroy to come around the time of Hector's, and it does, Achilles' actions fitting perfectly as an example of hubris. 150. __Mycenaens__: As early settlers of Greece, the Mycenaeans were an Indo-European people that thrived in the late Helladic Period, or the Mycenaean Period (1600-1100 BCE). Taking much of their culture from the earlier settlers of Minoan Crete, the Mycenaeans contributed greatly to the construction of the Greek city-states, and, as a warlike people, also fortified and expanded the Greek city states. Much of Greek legend comes from the Mycenaean Period, most notably the writings of Homer which are based in this time frame, and it is from this period that we are able to know so much today about the origins of Greek life and mythology. The Greeks believed that the Myceneans were overrun by another Greek-speaking people, the Dorians, and there is some evidence that invasions may have taken place. If that were the case, the Dorians were uninterested in the Mycenean cities but chose to live in small, tribal, agricultural groups. It may be that no invasions took place, but that economic collapse drove people from the cities out into the countryside. Whatever happened, the great Mycenean cities were abandoned to their fates; Greek society once again became a non-urbanized, tribal culture and transitioned into the period known as the Greek Dark Age. 151. __Minoans__: A highly sophisticated culture on Crete. They had little to no military state and were a civilization based on trade and bureaucracy. The civilization lasted only a few centuries and all we have left of them is their palaces, art, and lots of records. It is significant because it had very strong social organization, culture, art and commerce without a significant military strength. It was also one of the first civilizations, though it fell just centuries after its formation, more than likely because of its lack of military.

152. __Polis__: the section of the agora, or market place, that is the epicenter of political activity in ancient Greek city-states. It is where everyone would go to debate and talk about politics. It is significant because Greece started out as a monarchy and until then, the people really had nothing to do with politics. The Polis was the defining part of the different city-states in their political beliefs. Anyone could participate and the polis was a part of everyone. 153. __Athens__- One of the most powerful Greek city-states. It centered on artistic and intellectual leadership. The Athenians invented democracy and had an advanced navy. It was conquered by Sparta in the Peloponnesian War. 154. __Sparta__- One of the most powerful Greek city-states. It centered on a strong military. They excelled at land battle. They had a singularly militaristic government, intent one maintaining control over a large slave population. They won the Peloponnesian war against Athens. 155. __Olympus__: The highest mountain in Greece portrayed in Greek mythology as the “home of the gods,” and more specifically the throne to Zeus. It was often referred to in early Greek writings like the Iliad and the Odysseys.

156. __Zeus__: The creation/father god who presided over an unruly assembly of gods and goddesses worshipped by the early Greeks and Romans. Zeus has been depicted in many Greek myths, poems, and art work and has made a significant impact in early Mediterranean literature. Zeus was also important in the bringing together of people through a common religion and a famous ceremony of games held to honor Him, the Olympics. 157. __Athena__: of Classical Greek mythology: Greek goddess of war, wisdom, the arts, industry, and justice; favorite child of Zeus, of his first wife, Metis; favor same city-state in Greece as Poseidon and competed for it with fine gifts, Athena gave the city an olive tree, useful for its wood, oil, and food, and called the city Athens; later worked with Poseidon, make first chariot and first ship 158. __Poseidon__: of Classical Greek mythology: brother to Zeus and unpredictable god-ruler of the sea, also attributed to horses, earthquakes; uncle to Athena, favored the same Greek city-state Athens as Athena but lost the competition for it after creating the Spring of Acropolis, in anger flooded Attic Plain; symbols of him are dolphins, tridents (3-pronged fish spears) 159. __Odyssey__- The // Odyssey // is a Greek epic poem attributed to Homer but possibly the work of many authors; it defined the gods and human nature that shaped the Greek mythos. It was written by Homer in the 8th century B.C.E, and it showed the Greek tradition of Epic poetry. The significance of the // Odyssey //was that it showed the lasting tradition of Greek epic poetry as well as defined the gods human nature in Greek Myths. The // Odyssey //is specifically about the journey of "Odysseus" and his long trek back home after the fall of Troy. Like the // Iliad // the // Odyssey //itself is an example of the Greek epic tradition. 160. __Iliad__: The // Iliad //is a Greek epic poem attributed to Homer but possibly the work of many authors; it defined the gods and human nature that shaped the Greek mythos. It was written by Homer in the 8th century B.C.E, and it showed the Greek tradition of Epic poetry. The significance of the // Iliad //was that it showed the lasting tradition of Greek epic poetry as well as defined the gods human nature in Greek Myths. The // Iliad //is specifically about the Trojan War and its proceedings. ex. Helen of Troy being fought over. Basically, The // Iliad //itself is an example of the Greek epic tradition. 161. __Democracy__: free and equal representation of people; free and equal right of every person to participate in a system of government, often practiced by electing representatives of the people by the majority of the people. System of government based on majority decision making. Allowed people to govern themselves, so there would be no more rebellions that could bring down an empire that practiced this form of government, why the citizens of Rome didn’t want to join Hannibal (they didn’t feel oppressed, felt no need to revolt) 162. __Solon__: A member of a law-making body or someone who is experienced and wise, especially a legislator or politician. Solon is a reference to Solon, the Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet who laid the foundations for Athenian democracy. 163. __Tyrant__: A tyrant was someone who illegally took control of a Greek polis. Currently, the term tyrant is used to describe an oppressive, harsh, and cruel ruler even though there were no such connotations of the word in Greece. 164. __Direct Democracy__: a form of democracy where the objective of the state is decided by the people not representatives. Ancient Greece is probably the only place in history where this has come close to happening. 165. __Phalanx__: The phalanx was a military troop formation, used by the ancient Greeks, which was developed some time around 700 B.C.E. The phalanx was a column of men, roughly 10 men wide and 10 deep. All men carried swords, spears, and round shields called hoplons, this gave the men the name hoplites. This formation relied on shock tactics, using hand to hand combat, and relying very little on other troops. The phalanx later proved to not be very strategically useful, and the only reason that this tactic was used until the fourth century was because it was ingrained in Greek culture. The phalanx won great victories against the Persian armies, but many historians agree that this is largely due to the poor strategy of the Persians. 166. __Pericles__: Pericles was an important figure in Athens following the Persian Wars. He led this state and was responsible for building projects such as the Parthenon, a giant statue of Athena, Propylaea, and other various temples and shrines to replace those destroyed by war. Pericles also built the long walls, stretching about 4.5 miles to a peninsula where three Athenian harbors were located. Pericles was also elected strategos (general) for 29 years. Pericles died of the plague, which struck Athens during the Peloponnesian Wars. 167. __The Persian War(s):__ The Persian Wars were fought between Persia and the Greek city-states. They began because some Greek city states were rebelling against Persia, and Athens decided to help them. The Battle of Marathon, which was won by the Athenians, was crucial to history in that without the Athenian success, much Greek knowledge would never have been acquired. Ten years later, the Persians attacked the Athenians again. The Battle of Thermopylae was fought in a narrow pass. 300 Spartans battled against the entire Persian army, and held out long enough before being slaughtered for the city of Athens to be evacuated. At the naval battle of Mycale, the Greeks officially ended the Persian invasion. The Persian War is significant because it showed Greek military superiority and the ability of the Greek city states to unite behind a single cause.

168. __Thermopylae__: The pass of Thermopylae itself is a narrow pass from northern Greece between mountains and the sea linking Locris and Thessaly. The Battle of Thermopylae, however, was in 480 BCE between Xerxes I and his massive Persian army intent on taking over Greece, and 300 Spartans under the command of Leonidas. Supposedly, a Greek traitor sold them out to the Persians. Although at the time this battle only served as a diversion so Athens could be evacuated, in the long run the 300 men who fought are symbolic and immortalized. 169. __Marathon__: The Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BCE and the outnumbered Greeks that fought defeated the Persians. This marked the end of the first Persian War led by Darius I. This battle showed the Greeks that the Persians could be beaten. 170. __Salamis__: Great naval battle fought between the Greeks and the Persians in 480 B.C.E. The Greeks were led by Themistocles. The Greeks defeated the Persians in this battle because their lighter more maneuverable ships rammed into the Persian ships.

171. __Delian League__: The Delian League was a union founded in 478 BCE of the Greek city-states for protection, with Athens at the helm, created after the Persian Wars. The other Greek city-states would pay money in exchange for protection from Persia by Athens’ massive navy. Athens took this money and used it for city improvements, creating the architectural masterpieces with marble. Splintering of the Delian League led to the Peloponnesian wars. 172. __Peloponnesian Wars__: Lasted from 431 to 404 BCE between Athens and Sparta for dominance in southern Greece. Corinth tried to pull out of the Delian League, Athens threatened to attack, Corinth ran to get help from Sparta, and the Peloponnesian Wars ensued. Sparta won due to the plague that wiped out many inhabitants in the walled city of Athens. Civil war between the city states that led to splintering of Greece, which caused weakness, division, and political decline. 173. __Socrates__: Socrates (469/470 BCE-399 BCE) was an ancient Athenian, Classical Greek philosopher, and the teacher of Plato. He has been credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. He invented the Socratic method (which involves learning through asking strings of questions) and Socratic irony. Some became afraid of him and this led to his execution. He had asked too many questions --specifically about the gods and their existence. 174. __Plato__: Plato was an Athenian Greek philosopher who was taught by Socrates. After Socrates' death, he traveled and studied with students of Pythagoras. After returning to Athens, he established his own school of philosophy. He was the one who kept the most notes on Socrates, giving us what we know today about him. Plato's most famous story is the Allegory of the Cave, in which a man is killed by his own people for knowing too many new, unimaginable things; this is a metaphor for the fate of his teacher, Socrates. 175. __Aristotle__: Aristotle was a Grecian philosopher and the teacher of Alexander the Great. His knowledge was based on observation of phenomena in material world. His contributions to society include knowledge in biology and the universal method of reasoning. 176. a __Reason__: a the mental powers concerned with forming conclusions, judgments, or inferences. This is what sets humans apart from animals. (example: If the people are unhappy under the king, they use // reason // to reach the decision to overthrow the king) 177. __Logic__: The study of arguments used most frequently in intellectual activities, typically philosophy, mathematics, and science. Often used in the early civilizations of China, India, and Greece, logic was used by many early thinkers. The // Oragnon //, is a compilation of the earliest sustained works on logic, written by Aristotle. Aristotelian logic didn’t fall out of favor till the logical innovations of the 19th century, including the formation of modern predicate logic. 178. __Homer__: Ancient Greek poet and author of the ancient epic poems // The Iliad //, and // The Odyssey. //Homer’s writings described the accounts of the Greek heroes Achilles and Odysseus, and their encounters with gods and goddesses during and after the Trojan War. A large contributor to Greek culture, Homer, according to Herodotus, lived around 850 BC. 179. __Lyric Poetry:__ The exact interpretation of lyric poetry differs from many cultures but in Ancient Greek society it was poetry that was sung with a lyre accompanying it in an iambic rhythm. It also was adopted into Roman society with no musical accompaniment but an emphasis on dramatic, personal events. These poets served as a vital artistic backdrop that aided to the rich, arts-entrenched culture of the Greeks and Romans that would later influence the bards of the middle ages. An example of lyric poetry at that time would be the anthology, __Four Books of Odes__ by Horace. 180. __Herodotus:__ Herodotus was a Greek historian who was the first to record down information with an emphasis on truth and accuracy. His book, The Histories, provides the only known information on the Persian Wars. Although there is some dispute at the accuracy of his statements, he is known as the “Father of History” for his observations. 181. __Hippocrates__: (460 B.C.E -377 B.C.E) Greek physician, considered father of modern/western medicine. Hippocratic oath that medical professionals still take today.

182. __Sophocles__: One of the most famous ancient Greek playwrights who wrote 123 plays total. His most famous plays include Oedipus, the King, and Antigone. Still preformed today.

183. __Ionic:__ After the stalkier build of the doric, the ionic order was used because of its 'female' like shape; delicate and skinnier. Often times the ionic column was used for smaller buildings, and interiors, but is easy to recognize because of the two scrolls towards the top. One great example of where a ionic column is used in Greek architecture is the Temple to Athena Nike at the entrance to the Athens Acropolis. 184. __Doric:__ These types of columns were often applied in 7th century BC to temples in ancient Greece. Often, Doric orders were rounded at the bottom, and square at the top, and also commonly held sculptures of people and different scenes of Greek tragedy. Today, the Parthenon is the most famous piece of history to hold this type of column in Rome. 185. __Corinthian__: An architectural style that the Greeks devised for the tops of their columns. This style is perhaps the most elaborate, featuring intricate chiseling and design. This style was later adopted by the Romans and is even prominent in architectural design today. 186. __Alexander the Great__: Macedonian King who ruled over the Greek city states, Egypt, the Middle East and all the way to borders of India. His love of Greek culture caused the Hellenistic period as he spread it throughout his conquered lands. His legacy was short lived as he perished at the age of 33. 187. __Hellenistic__: This refers to the Hellenistic period, during which Greek art and culture merged with Middle Eastern forms. The Greeks were known as the Hellenes thus the name of the era. There was little political activity under the autocratic Hellenistic kings, but trade flourished and significant trading centers like Alexandria in Egypt were established. This was a time of the consolidation of Greek civilization even after its political decline. The Hellenistic period represents Greek culture at its highest influence due to its many conquests. This time spans from roughly 323 BCE (The year of Alexander the Great’s death) to 146 BCE (The rise of Rome). Examples of Greek art which are emphasized during this are; the Venus de Milo and Greek sculpture in general.

188. __Euclid__: (323 BCE-283 BCE) Euclid of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician and is referred to as the “Father of Geometry.” He developed Euclidean Geometry, the same geometry we learn in school today. He played a vital role within Greek architecture as he established the “Golden Section,” which is a ratio which provided the most visually pleasing and ideal proportions for any structure. His knowledge of geometry also influenced the building of Greek structures involving angles and such. His sacred geometry also helped Greeks achieve their desire for perfection in both architecture and art. An example of work influenced by his math is the Parthenon. Greek architecture influence by Euclidean geometry is seen in the modern construction as well like Boise High and the UVA campus. 189. __Archimedes__: an ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor and astronomer. He is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Among his advances in physics are the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and an explanation of the principle of the lever. He is credited with designing innovative machines including siege engines and the screw pump that bears his name. 190. __Hellenism__: The principles, ideals, and pursuits associated with classical Greek civilization. The conquests of Alexander the Great spread Hellenism throughout the east allowing for the classical culture to be preserved 191. __Erathosthenes__: Born around 276 B.C.E at a Greek Colony in Cyrene, Libya. He is commonly called the "Father of geography", he was the first to introduce the concepts of torrid, temperate, and frigid zones. Erathothenes had a small-scale notion of the planet that led him to be able to determine the circumference of the earth. He determined Earth's circumference at 25,000 miles just 100 miles over the actual circumference of 24,901 miles. 192. __Macedonia__: Macedonia was north of active Classical Greece, it had large fertile plans, mountains were olives were produced, and two rivers that regularly flooded and depositing silt onto the plain. Macedonia is known as the homeland of Phillip II and Alexander the Great, who took over Greece after The Peloponnesian War pushed Athens and Sparta farther apart. 193. __Republic__: a state in which the supreme power rests in the body of citizens entitled to vote and is exercised by representatives chosen directly or indirectly by them. The world’s first republic was located in Vaisali, India, around 700 or 600 BCE. The most well known republic of the ancient world is the republic of Rome. It was run by a council of 300 people, who chose to people to rule. 194. __Patrician__: A member of one of the noble families of the ancient Roman Republic, which before the third century BCE. had exclusive rights to the Senate and the magistracies. These families were seen as the most prestigious families in Rome. The highest of the high were referred to as Gentes Maiores. = 195. __Plebeians:__ the plebeians were members of the lower social class in Rome. At first they were excluded from the Senate and public offices, but later these positions were opened up to them. They were significant because they made up the Plebeian Council in the government, once they were allowed in government. Members of the council elected officers, called tribunes. Members of the Plebeian Council represented the common Romans. Examples of these people are small farmers, merchants, and freed slaves. = = = = 196. __Veto:__ veto means to block a decision or a law. In ancient Rome, tribunes could veto laws that were proposed by Roman officials, magistrates (judges), or the Senate. This prevented the upper class from passing laws that would negatively affect the lower class = 197. __Forum__: Around 450 BCE, the Forum was built, almost like the Agora, in Rome as a marketplace and place of political attribute. This place also held the 12 Tables, which were the punishments, rights, and laws in Rome. During this time, the laws and magistrates were very powerful, and there was a strong goal of justice among the Roman people. 198. __Constitution__: (of the Roman republic); tried to reconcile the various elements suggested by the Greek political experience, with primary reliance on the principle of aristocracy; lasted until the final decades of dissension in the 1st century B.C.E. 199. __Senate__: The Roman Senate was mainly composed of 300 aristocrats selected by their peers, who held virtually all executive offices in the Roman state. Each year the senate elected consuls to rule and share the power. The senate was the most important legislative body within Rome. The ideals of public service, eloquent public speaking and arguments which sought to identify the general good were realized within the senate. Overtime the senate became a meaningless forum of debate and lost most of its power. Cicero, an active senator and Roman writer, examined appropriate political ethics, the duties of the citizens, the importance of incorruptible service, and key political skills like oratory. These ideas were frequently discussed within the senate, even the structure of the state was investigated. 200. __Consuls__: chairmen of the roman senate elected once a year. They were like the executive branch of their government, which was a lot like a parliamentary democracy. The senate elected the consuls, who were elected by the senate, who were elected by the people every year. The consuls could only rule when they agreed, otherwise one consul would veto the other. They elected two to avoid monarchy in Roman politics. This is significant because it was the first form of government established after Rome decided it was fed up with dictatorships ruling over them. Though they could elect a dictator for 6 months if the need arose, it was more often than not a great way to keep the power equal between more than one person and made laws fair for the people. 201. __Dictator__: A person who has complete and absolute power. A dictatorship affects how the civilization interacts and develops, ultimately the legacy they will carry on. An example of this can be seen scattered throughout history such as in Ancient China under the Qin Dynasty. The emperor, Qin Shi Huang believed himself to be “Lord of all under the sun.” He made himself to be the only ruler and took precedents to all including the former political structure and military. With this form of authority the Qin dynasty was able to leave behind a memorable legacy with the remarkable works of the Terrachata Soldiers and Great Wall of China. 202. __Etruscans__- Also called Tyrrhenians, they were a people that lived in Italy far before Rome acquired power; so, of course, when the Romans conquered, they were very influenced by the Etruscans. They ruled through powerful kings and well-organized armies. Not much is known about these people except their influence on Rome (single most important influence on Roman culture when on its way to civilization). One of the main things that was influenced by them was their complicated rituals for the religious future. 203. __Tribunes__- These people were also called Plebeians. They elected a "tribune" which was any of various administrative officers elected to protect the interests and rights of the plebeians from the patricians. The significance of this group was that it represented the interests of the common people rather than just the wealthy patricians. 204. __Cincinnatus__: Born in 519 BCE, died 438 BCE Roman aristocrat, politician, consul(460 BC) and dictator(458, 439 BCE) A hero of early Rome. Strong opponent of improvement of Plebeian class.

205. __Veto__: Latin for “I forbid,” power to stop legislation, or to stop bill from becoming law; practice originated in the 6th Century B.C.E. Roman Republic, the Plebeian House and the two consuls were given the power to override the Senate in order to protect the Plebs (lower class) from the patricians (upper class) 206. __Forum__: The Roman Forum, located between the Palatine Hill and the Capitoline Hill of the city of Rome Italy, is part of the centralized area around which ancient Rome developed, and was both a vibrant and vital part of Roman civilization. Over time, the Senate House, government offices, Tribunals, religious monuments, memorials and statues cluttered the area, making it the central focus in all areas political, social, and economic of the vast Roman Empire. The Forum, much like the Greek acropolis, was one of Antiquity's finest examples of a concrete (no pun intended) societal infrastructure. It allowed the for both city of Rome and the the empire/republic's vast political,social, and economic issues to be centralized, thus promoting power and prosperity. The Forum's example would be modeled hundreds of times in later cities around the world, primarily those of political significance. 207. __Arch__: It is a common misconception to think that the Romans invented the arch. The arch had existed for many years before Rome even existed, it was just used on a much smaller scale. Romans used a very durable type of cement when building arches, allowing them to support more weight than previously possible. This led to huge expansions in Roman architecture. Aqueducts were created, transporting water across entire countrysides. Large scale building projects were now possible. Other societies also adopted the Roman arch, Byzantine architects used the design, and it can still be seen in the world today. Arabs developed arches of different shapes from roman principles, and the idea of the arch was used to develop the dome. Both arches and domes can be seen across the world today. In the Taj Mahal, the US capital, and in everyday buildings. 208. __Gladiators__: were armed combatants who entertained audiences in Rome in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their legal and social standing and their lives by appearing in the arena. Most were despised as slaves, schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in death. 209. __Twelve Tables__: The Roman Republic’s first code of laws, written in 450 BCE. They were created to restrain the upper class from arbitrary action and to subject them, as well as ordinary people, to some common legal principles. It was intended to be able to meet changing conditions without fluctuating wildly. 210. __Carthage__. Carthage was founded by Phoenicians from Tyre, supposedly by a woman, in 813 or 814 B.C.E. They were a sophisticated republic, the idea of Roman consulship is based upon their suffetes, two annually elected magistrates. The Punic wars are what made Carthage famous. The Punic wars were a battle over the trading port of Sicily between Rome and Carthage. The Cartheginians were a superior navy, so Rome devised the corvus which allowed them to win the First Punic War (264-241 BCE). The Second Punic War (218- 202 BCE) was waged by Hannibal in Italy. the Third Punic War (149- 146 BCE) was more of a massacre under Scipio Africanus, and the end to Carthage as it was. 211. __Hannibal__: Great Carthaginian General in second Punic War; successfully invaded Italy using elephants to go through the Alps. Won many battles but was eventually defeated in Rome’s attack on Carthage in 202 BCE called the Battle of Zama. Was the son of Hamilcar Barca and was a genius of war strategies. = 212. __Scipio:__ Scipio was the Roman general in the Battle of Zama in the second Punic War. The Romans defeated the Carthaginians and won the second Punic War = = = 213. __Corvus__: This was a movable bridge with a metal prong that could be dropped onto the deck of a Carthaginian ship. Once the two ships were tied to each other, the Romans could use the ships as platforms for fighting. Afterwards they came to be called “ravens.” On the prow stood a round pole, seven meters in height and 30 centimeters in diameter. This pole had a pulley at the summit and round it was put a gangway made of cross planks attached by nails, 1.20 meters in width and eleven meters in length. In this gangway was an oblong hole and it went round the pole at a distance of 3½ meters from its near end. The gangway also had a railing on each of its long sides as high as a man's knee. At its extremity was fastened an iron object like a pestle pointed at one end and with a ring at the other end. To this ring was attached a rope with which, when the ship charged an enemy, they raised the ravens by means of the pulley on the pole and let them down on the enemy's deck, sometimes from the prow and sometimes bringing them round when the ships collided broadsides. Once the ravens were fixed in the planks of the enemy's deck and grappled the ships together, if they were broadside on, they boarded from all directions but if they charged with the prow, they attacked by passing over the gangway of the raven itself two abreast. The leading pair protected the front by holding up their shields, and those who followed secured the two flanks by resting the rims of their shields on the top of the railing. 214. __Zama__: The battle of Zama; named for the Roman colony that would be founded there 150 years later. Was the battle at the end of the 2nd Punic War between Hannibal, and the victor Publius Cornelius Scipio of Rome. Meant the doom of Carthage and a reputation for Scipio as the best general/military strategist in the world, and proof of Rome's massive military strength.

215. __Gracchi brothers:__ The Gracchi brothers were Tiberius and Gaius, who were Roman Plebian noblemen serving as tribunes in the second century BCE. They wanted to pass land reform legislation that would reorganize major landholdings amid plebeians. For what they tried to do and their involvement in the Populares party they have been considered founding fathers of socialism and populism. They had some success, but ended up both being assassinated. 216. __Sulla__- Sulla was a dictator that took control of Rome in 82 and 81 BCE. He entered into power after the senate elected him dictator under constitutional law for an extreme emergency. He took advantage of this and took over Rome, hunting down and killing those who threatened his power. 217. __Caesar__: Roman general responsible for conquest of Gaul; brought army back to Rome and overthrew republic; assassinated in 44 B.C.E. by conservative senators. He expanded the Roman empire and was unmatched in military power in Rome which almost lead to a dictatorship, played a major role in changing the Republic into the Empire. 218. __Triumvirate__: The political alliance of Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, formed in 60 BCE ( First Triumvirate ) To avert civil war, Julius Caesar, whose reputation was growing because of his military successes, suggested a 3-way partnership. This unofficial alliance is known to us as the 1st triumvirate. Julia, wife of Pompey and daughter of Julius Caesar, died in 54, passively breaking the personal alliance between Caesar and Pompey. 219. __Augustus__: Augustus Caesar was Julius Caesar’s nephew. He seized power in 27 B.C.E., established the basic structures of the Roman Empire, and became the first roman emperor. Historians title him as “Augustus” (revered one). 220. __The //Pax Romana//__//:// (“//Roman Peace”// is a Latin term) This term referred to a prolonged period of peace in the Roman Empire that lasted for more than two centuries, from about 27 B.C.E. until around 180 C.E. During this time no other empire or military power achieved victory against the Romans. This period also refers to the great "Romanization" of the western world. Caesar Augustus created this in attempt to stop the civil wars breaking out among the Romans. 221. __Villa:__ A kind of Roman country house for the upper class 222. __Bread and Circuses:__ In Rome the state would provide cheap food and entertainment to the people. This was significant to Rome because it gave people something to be occupied with instead of getting into trouble. 223. __Paterfamilias:__ The male head, or father of a Roman family. In Roman culture, the father had supreme rule over his family, and he controlled everything from the funds, to the family members themselves. He could sell his wife and children into slavery, or even order their deaths. He could also extend this power onto his slaves or tenet farmers. His main duty was to offer sacrifices to the household gods at the proper times. 224. __Ptolemy:__ Claudius Ptolemaeus (// c. // 90- // c. //168 CE) was a Roman citizen of Alexandria, Egypt who wrote in Greek, and possibly was from Greek descent. He studied mathematics, astronomy, and geography. He developed a system to support the classic Greek geocentric belief that the planets and the sun orbited the Earth. 225. __Latin__- The language spoken in Italy at the time of the first Roman kings. Now a dead language, it is the basis of all of the modern day romance languages (French, Spanish, etc.) 226. __Civil Law__: The Principle of civil law is to provide all citizens with and accessible and written collection of the laws which apply to them and to which the judges must follow. It is the most precedent and oldest surviving legal system in the world. The Romans used this system to try to get rid of bias decisions in the court. They posted very concrete laws for the citizens in the Twelve Tables, and posted them in the Forum. Concrete laws were a part of this system that the Romans set up, and supposedly took all bias and unfair decisions out of the question. 227. __Aqueducts__: technological device used to transport water from mountains to cities during Roman Times 228. __Christianity__: founded on principles and ideas of Jesus Christ, spread by Peter and Paul, became a legitimate system of faith during the later part of the Roman Empire 229. __Messiah__: the savior—Christians believe Jesus Christ was the Messiah, Jews are still waiting for the Messiah to come 230. __Jesus of Nazareth:__ He was the prophet and teacher among the Jews. He is believed by Christians to be the messiah. He was crucified in 30 CE. 231. __Disciples:__ Followers of Jesus of Nazareth. Believed and helped spread his teachings, 232. __Apostles:__ Leaders that Jesus of Nazareth chose to bring his message to the world. There were originally 12 apostles. 233. __Martyrs:__ Someone who willingly suffers death rather than renounces their religion. Sometimes, they are willing to die for their religion, such as suicide bombers. 234. __Paul:__ An early convert to Christianity, who was a disciple of Jesus of Nazareth. He encouraged more organization in the new church. He also helped make others view Christianity as a religion, rather than a Jewish reform movement. 235. __Eucharist:__ Also known as the last supper. It was the last meal he shared with his disciples before his arrest and crucifixion. 236. __Edict of Milan:__ Granted Christians religious tolerance in the Roman Empire. 237. __Bishop:__ A Christian clergy who is entrusted with a position of power or oversight. 238. __Pope:__ The bishop of Rome. He gave the western church an uncommon sense of strength and independence. 239. __Inflation:__ When more money is in circulation than what the government has to back it up (Gold/Silver ect.), money becomes less valuable, causing prices to skyrocket. 240. __Constantine:__ Roman emperor from 312 to 337 CE. He established the second capitol at Constantinople, and attempted to unify his empire by forcing Christianity upon his people. 241. __Diocletian:__ Roman emperor from 284 to 305 CE. He restored the later empire by improving administration and tax collection. 242. __Attila:__ King and general of the Hun Empire from 433 to 453 CE. 243. __Mesoamerica:__ Civilizations in central South America. They included the Olmecs, Aztecs, and Mayans. 244. __Olmecs:__ Civilization in Central America that led the way for other larger civilizations. 245. __Chavin:__ Civilization in northern Peru. 246. __Slash and burn agriculture:__ Farming style where land is cleared by cutting and burning down vegetation in an area. The land is farmed until all nutrients in the soil are used up. 247. __Tribute:__ Wealth given to another as a sign of respect or as submission or allegiance. 248. __Alliance:__ An agreement between two or more parties, made in order to advance common goals and to secure common interests 249. __Glyphs:__ A character used in ancient writing. 250. __Maize:__ In English means corn. It was cultivated by Mesoamerican civilizations. 251. __Llama:__ An animal found in South America, which was first domesticated by Mesoamerican civilizations for its fur.